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JOHN J. KING, FREDERIC ARCHER, 

Publisher. Editor. 


PRICE 10 CE NTS. 

One Year, $4.00. Six Months, $2.00. 

It can be ordered from any Bookseller, Newsdealer, Stationer, or Music Dealer. 

Sent post-paid at above rates. Address— 

THE KEYNOTE, P. 0. Box 1766, New York City. 



























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A CAREFUL COMPILATION FROM THE BEST AUTHORITIES 

OF 

MANY IMPORTANT FACTS 

RELATING TO 


CHRONOLOGY, HISTORY, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, MYTHOLOGY, ASTRON¬ 
OMY, GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, CHEMISTRY, PHILOSOPHY, ELEC¬ 
TRICITY, ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, POTTERY, ARCHITECTURE, 
SCULPTURE, MUSIC, PAINTING, MISCELLANY. 


Compiled and Published by 

T 

S. H. INGERSOLL. 




NEW YORK: 

42 Cedar Street, 
1886. 














f\0r\o5 

Xl3 


COMPILER’S NOTE. 

This book is offered to the public with full faith that it fills a 
want long felt by many. 

We have availed ourselves of the contents of the best encyclo¬ 
paedias, and of many other works; and while we offer in a very 
condensed form, with no attempt at style, much that has been 
uttered in many ways by other compilers, it will be found that we 
furnish a great amount of knowledge, in good type, in a very 
small space. 

The aim and hope of the compiler may be summed up in a 
few words. All persons who read this little book will get pleasure 
out of its contents, and that is much. Many will perhaps get the 
elements of culture, and that is more. And some may get at once 
pleasure, culture, and a little preparation for severer studies, and 
so receive a benefit, though doubtless of a humble kind. 


Copyright, 1886, by S. H. Ingersoll. 



CONTENTS, 


PAGE 


Architecture. 52 

Astronomy. . 40 

Botany. 48 

Chemistry. 44 

Chronology.. 5 

Ethnology... .50 

Electricity.47 

Geography.42 

Geology.43 

History. 7 

American. 27 

Ancient. 8 

Austrian. 17 

British.21 

Egyptian. 8 

French. 20 

German.«. 16 

Grecian. 9 

Irish.25 

Mediaeval. 12 

Modern Europe. 12 

Roman. 10 

Russian. 14 

Spanish. 18 

Swedish. 15 

Language. 30 

Literature. 31 

Continental. 34 

English. 36 

German. 35 

Grecian. 31 

Mediaeval. 33 

Roman.33 


PACK 

Miscellany. 56 

Ages—Stone, Iron, and Bronze.. 
Agricultural, Statistics of U.S.. 
Architecture, Gothic, the term. 

Bible, the first. 

Bible, the first English. 

Bills of Exchange. 

Blood, Circulations of. 

Books, Material of, in early 

times. 

Books, Covering. 

Brother Jonathan, the word.... 

Buddha. 

Cash, the origin of the word... 
Cheap Literature, when begun. 

China, the great Wall of. 

China, the great Canal of. 

Christ crucified. 

Churches in Asia, seven. 

Colosseum at Rome. 

Confucius . 

Consols, origin of the word.... 

Copyright, dates from. 

Earthquake at Lisbon. 

Easter Eggs. 

Encyclopedias, the first. 

English Language, the. 

Garter, the origin of Order of.. 
Guinea, the origin of the word.. 

Gypsies, the origin of the. 

Hanging Gardens of Babylon.. 

Historian, the first Church. 

Hour Glass, the first. 60 


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4 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Miscellany— Continued. 

Houris. 62 

Insurance Company, the first.. 60 

Isparetta, who she was. 62 

Knights, the origin of. 62 

Koran, the Author of. 57 

Liberty, meaning of the word.. 62 

Lamp, the first use of. 63 

Leaf, origin of the word. 63 

Libraries, the five largest.58 

Light of the sun, the penetra¬ 
tion of.58 

Lithography, the invention of.. 57 

Lloyds, origin of.60 

Magazines, the first. 57 

Mariner’s Compass. 59 

Masonic Guilds.59 

Money, origin of the word. 60 

Mosque of Omar, the. 57 

Newspapers, Earliest English.. 57 
Northeast Passage, when made. 59 

Ocean, the depth of . 58 

Ordinary News in the Middle 

Ages...56 

Pacific Ocean, the discovery of. 58 

Palace of Nero, the Golden. 62 

Paper, the invention of. 56 

Patron Saints. 59 

Pecuniary, the word. 60 

Pharos of Alexandria, the.58 

Playing Cards, first used.56 

Powers of the World, the Great. 58 

Potato, the introduction of. 60 

Pre-Adamites. 61 

Printing, the invention of. 56 

Printing, first introduction in 
England. 57 


PAGE 


Miscellany— Continued. 

Propeller, the First Screw.60 

Publicans of the Bible.. .61 

Religious Sects of the World... 61 

Reviews, the first . 57 

Rosetta Stone, the. 59 

Saints’ Days. 59 

Sea Passage to India, the first.. 59 

Septuagint, the. 57 

Shamrock, the. 62 

Sicilian Vespers. 59 

Stationer, the origin of. 56 

Sterling, the origin of.60 

Tableaux Vivants, the origin of. 62 

Talmud, the.57 

Telephone, the. 60 

Temple of Jerusalem, the.57 

Testament Old, First. 57 

Testament New, First. 57 

University, the first. 59 

Vaccination. 59 

Vedas, the.57 

Volume, the word. 56 

Vulgate. 57 

Waves, the height of. 58 

Weather Cocks. 62 

Weeping Brides. 62 

Wise Men of Greece, the Seven. 57 
Wonders of the World, Seven.. 58 

Wood Engraving, the first. 56 

Music. 54 

Mythology. 37 

Painting . 55 

Philosophy. 46 

Pottery-Ceramics.51 

Sculpture. 53 

Zoology. 49 



























































'/ 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


CHRONOLOGY. 

Chronology is the science of the measurement of time. A 
long period of time which is measured by events in it, being reck¬ 
oned from a certain epoch or remarkable period of time, is called 
an Era. 

The letters b.c. indicate the time “before Christ;” a.d. refers to 
the time after the birth of Christ, or in the year of the Lord. 

The Greeks reckoned from 776 b.c. The Mohammedans, from 
the flight of Mohammed, 622 a.d. The Egyptians, Hindus, 
Chinese, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians all had their sys¬ 
tems of chronology. All Christendom reckons its time from the 
birth of Christ. 

The Hebrew system has always been regarded by those who 
hold the Hebrew Scriptures to be inspired as the most important, 
because by it the age of the world and of mankind is supposed to 
be fixed. According to this system, from the creation to the del¬ 
uge was 1656 years; from the deluge to the birth of Christ 2348 
years. 

In modern times the science of Geology has shown this system 
to be too short for the age of the world and of man, and authentic 
records of the Egyptians and Assyrians have shown the time 
allowed from the deluge to be too short. 

Various plans have been adopted for allowing more time, with¬ 
out imperilling the infallibility of Scripture. The latest chronol- 
ogers on this principle fix the Deluge at b.c. 3099 or 3159, and 
the creation of Adam about b.c. 5361 or 5421. 

The Jewish year consisted of twelve lunar months, with a thir¬ 
teenth introduced at intervals. 

In most of the Greek States the year was composed of the twelve 
months, at a rough average of thirty days each; but as early as 
594 b.c. it was "known that the lunar months contained only 
twenty-nine and a half days. 

The Roman year originally had ten months of 304 days, which 
Numa increased by the addition of two months (January and 
February), making a year of 355 days. This year was corrected 
by the addition of a short intercalary month, and remained in 



6 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


force until 46 b.c., known as the year of confusion, when the ac¬ 
cumulated error was corrected by the addition of sixty-seven days, 
fixing the year at 365£ days, consisting of twelve months, with 
the names and number of days they still retain. 

The Julian year being in excess of the true solar year eleven 
minutes and twelve seconds, Pope Gregory XIII., assisted by a 
number of learned men, in 1582 a.d. again readjusted the calen¬ 
dar. They struck out ten days, reckoning the 5th of October as 
the 15th. 

The Gregorian, or New Style , was adopted in England in 1752, 
and in Sweden in 1753. Russia, and those countries where the 
Greek Church prevails, still hold to the Old Style . The difference 
between the old and new style is 11 days, and the rectification 
errs by only one day in 3600 years. 

Easter was properly and originally a heathen festival, which 
was appropriated by the Church and applied to the resurrection. 
It is always the first Sunday after the first full moon, on or after 
the 21st of March. 

Leap year is known by dividing the years by 4. 

The Civil year begins and ends at 12 o’clock midnight of the 
31st of December. 

The Athenians began the year in June; the Romans first in 
March, then in January. 

The 1st of January was legally adopted by France 1563, by 
Scotland 1600, by England and Ireland 1752. 

A century begins with 1 and ends with 100. The Eighteenth 
Century began with 1701 and ended 1800. 

The term month originally signified the time occupied by the 
moon in revolving around the earth. 

The Calendar months, 12 in number, received their names from 
the Romans, and were arranged by Julius Csesar almost as they 
now appear. January is called from Janus, the Roman god of 
the year. February is from the Latin, Februo, I purify. March 
is from Mars, the god of war. April is from Aperio, the Latin 
word, to open. May is from Maia, the mother of Mercury. June 
is from Juno. July is from Julius Ccesar. August from Augus¬ 
tus Csesar. September is from Septem, Latin for seventh. 
October, November, December, respectively signify the 8th, 9th, 
and 10th months of the Roman year. 

The week is an ancient division of time, not only among the 
Hebrews but among the Egyptians, Chinese and Hindus. 

Sunday was named by the Scandinavians and Saxons, from the 
sun. Monday, from the moon. Tuesday, from Tuesco, the god 
of war. Wednesday, from Woden, a deity. Thursday, from 
Thor, the Saxon god of thunder. Friday, from Friga, the wife of 
Woden, and Saturday, from Saturn. Sabbath is from a Hebrew 
word signifying rest. The Hebrews began their Sabbath on the 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 7 

sunset of tlie sixth day, Friday, and ended it on the sunset of the 
seventh day, Saturday. 

The sun dial is an instrument of great antiquity for measuring 
time; but since the introduction of clocks it has become an astro¬ 
nomical toy. The next decided advance in the measurement of 
time was an instrument that measured the hours by the afflux of 
water from a graduated vessel. It was introduced into Rome by 
Scipio Nusica about 158 b.c. 

With the invention of the first escapement, clocks proper may be 
said to begin. In 1288 a.d. a clock was set up in the Old Palace 
Yard, London. Henry Yon Wick set up in Paris 1379 a.d. one 
of the most famous of these earlier clocks. In 1641 Harris, an 
Englishman, perceived the possibility of regulating the action of 
the escapement by a pendulum. It was Huygliens, however, the 
Dutch physicist, who first constructed a pendulum clock. 

HISTORY. 

“History has always been considered as the light of ages, the 
depository of events, the faithful evidence of truth, the source of 
prudence and good council, and the rule of conduct and manners.” 

The Babylonians recorded their first observations on bricks, and 
the most ancient monuments of Chinese literature were inscribed 
upon tables of stone. 

Such was the rude commencement of annals and historical 
record's. 

The Egyptians may be said to have possessed an historical 
literature from the time of the invention and use of papyrus as 
a writing material. 

The study of History as a department of intellectual culture, 
however, was reserved to the Greeks. It was about the Fifth Cen¬ 
tury b.c. that Herodotus composed the first work fully answer¬ 
ing to our present idea of history. 

During the Middle Ages history was entirely eclipsed except 
among the Saracens. 

What we now recognize as history is divided into Sacred and 
Profane. 

Sacred History is what is contained in the Old and New Tes¬ 
taments. 

Profane history is divided into Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern. 

The pre-historic period precedes recorded history. Geology dis¬ 
closes evidences of a pre-historic period. 

Ancient history ends 476 a.d. Mediaeval history begins then 
and ends about 1450 a.d. 

Scripture history is reckoned about 4004 b.c. 

Authentic profane or civil history reaches only to about 1000 
years b.c., and the whole chronology of ancient times is allowed to 
be very uncertain. 


8 SPARKS FROM THE ANYIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Ancient History. 

Ancient History began in Asia and in the northern part of 
Africa. 

Civilization and a knowledge of the Arts prevailed at least 
3000 years ago,—among the Hebrews, Assyrians, Chaldeans, 
Babylonians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Medes, Persians and Lyd¬ 
ians. 

The early history of Assyria, like that of Babylonia, is involved 
in obscurity. Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, is said to have 
been founded by Nimrod; Asshur, one of the sons of Shem, has 
also been named as its founder. 

Babylonia, of which Babylon was the capital, was an ancient 
country of Asia which the Scriptures call “ the land of Sliinar” 
and “ the land of the Chaldees.” 

About 1270 b.c. the Assyrian Kings became masters of Chaldea, 
or Babylonia, and the period of their greatest glory was about 
1000 b.c. 

The Chaldeans, in ancient history, were a learned and priestly 
class of men. They worshipped the powers of nature, princi¬ 
pally the sun. 

Alexander the Great made his triumphal entrance into Baby¬ 
lon 331 b. c. 

The Phoenicians, inhabitants of Phoenicia, a country on the 
shores of the Mediterranean Sea, were noted for their mercantile 
pursuits. They had several seaports, including Tyre and Sidon, 
and are said to have frequently visited the British islands. 

Tarshish, of Scripture, was believed to have been a district and 
city of the south of Spain, and formed the limit of the western 
world as known to the Hebrews. 

Ancient Egypt. 

In the words of Bunsen, Egypt is the monumental land of the 
earth, as the Egyptians are the monumental people of history. 
According to the Hebrews, the Egyptians were the descendants 
of Ham. 

Menes, the founder of the first of thirty dynasties, is the first 
recorded ruler over Egypt, and is said to have founded the 
ancient city of Memphis. 

Cheops, it is supposed, was built by a king of the fourth 
dynasty, and is one of the oldest monuments that are extant. 

The Hebrew writers gave the name of Pharaoh as a general 
title to the long line of sovereigns in Egypt. 

The Pyramids were believed to have been erected as monu¬ 
mental tombs to the Pharaohs. They are of immense size and of 
great antiquity. 

Thebes and Memphis were the chief cities of ancient Egypt 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


9 


and among the oldest. The temples and palaces of the former are 
at this day the most magnificent ruins on the face of the globe. 

Egypt was the central point of civilization of the world long 
before the foundation of Carthage and Rome. 

The ancient Egyptians believed in the immortality of the soul, 
but they worshipped beasts and reptiles and had a great regard 
for animals, especially a particular kind of beetle, which (the lat¬ 
ter) they copied as gems and wore them about their persons. 

The scholars of Egypt were well versed in geometry, architec¬ 
ture, mechanics, hydraulics, and had some knowledge of what is 
now called chemistry. They were, according to Herodotus and 
Cicero, the most learned of all nations in relation to their native 
annals. 

Egypt was conquered 525 b.c. by Cambyses, King of Persia, 
but regained her independence in the twenty-eighth dynasty. The 
country was again conquered by Darius, 350 b.c., and Nec- 
tanebus, the last king of the thirty dynasties, ceased to reign. 

The succession of Egyptian monarchs, embracing a period of 
3553 years, is unexampled in history. 

The Greeks attribute to the Egyptians the invention of the lyre 
and lute. 

At the death of Alexander, the acquired Egyptian provinces 
were divided among his generals, and formed independent nations 
until subdued by the Romans. 

The Ptolomies were Greek Kings of Egypt, commencing with 
the death of Alexander. 

GRECIAN HISTORY. 

Early accounts of Greece consist chiefly of mythological 
legends and fables narrated by the poets. The Greeks spoke of 
Zeus as the sovereign of the universe, but they were practically 
worshippers of many gods and offered sacrifices in temples. 

According to the Greek myth, Deucalion was a person who 
saved himself and his wife in an ark which he built when all 
Greece was submerged nine days by Zeus. The world was said 
to have been repeopled by Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha. 

The Greeks had a fanciful notion that the history of the world 
was divided into the Golden, Bronze, and Iron and Stone Ages. 

The credible history of Greece begins 776 b.c. It teaches us 
that Greece was divided in petty States, ruled by an aristocracy or 
democracy, among whom there were frequent wars. The two 
most prominent States were Athens and Sparta. The Athenian 
Government was at first a kind of aristocracy, but falling into dis¬ 
order, Draco attempted reform. The laws of Draco, one of the 
Archons, or rulers, were so severe that the lightest as well as the 
gravest offences were punished with death. 


10 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Solon, a learned and sagacious Athenian, was invited to remedy 
the abuses of government that Draco failed to cure; but his rule 
was finally set aside by the usurpation of the supreme power by 
Peisistratus. The latter’s rule was mild and beneficent, and he 
was noted as the most humane and accomplished of all the Greek 
tyrants. The Tyrants, as they were called, were not always neces¬ 
sarily cruel, but oftentimes the contrary. 

Greece enjoyed the greatest prosperity from about 500 to 146 
b.c., during which time the country attained to a high position 
in architecture, sculpture, and the arts, although constant wars 
prevailed, and even subjugation. 

Greece furnished many great generals, among whom were 
Miltiades, who was victorious over the Persians at the battle of 
Marathon, 490 b.c.; Leonidas, who defended the pass of Ther¬ 
mopylae against a host of Persians; and Themistocles, a naval com¬ 
mander, who relieved her from her invaders. 

Pausanius was a Greek general who, having favored the Per¬ 
sians, took refuge in a temple of Minerva, where his indignant 
mother brought the first stone to build up the entrance, and by 
which act he was starved to death. 

Pericles, a successor of Themistocles, gained great ascendancy 
over the Athenians as a civic ruler and military commander. He 
directed to be built the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva at 
Athens, and other celebrated buildings. 

The Thebans, or Boetians, inhabitants of a part of Greece, were 
reputed dull and stupid, but they provided some of the most 
illustrious of Greek warriors and writers. 

The Peloponnesian war arose from a rivalry between Athens and 
Sparta for the leadership of the Grecian States. It lasted twenty 
years and greatly devastated Greece, and led to its subjugation by 
Philip, King of Macedon, 338 b.c. Philip conferred a new lustre 
on Greece by his vigorous policy, and the conquests of his son 
Alexander carried the fame of Greece to the banks of the Ganges. 

After the death of Alexander, Greece remained a dependency 
of Macedon, and endeavored to regain her independence, and 
failed. After being subject to Macedon 190 years, Greece passed 
into the power of the Romans 148 b.c. 

ROMAN HISTORY. 

The City of Rome sprung into existence in Latium, a part of 
Italy which was occupied by a number of separate peoples of the 
same Asiatic origin as the Greeks. 

The kingly power of Rome began with Romulus about 753 b.c., 
and terminated with Tarquin 509 b.c., when a republic was 
established. The stern character of the Romans at this latter 
time is shown by the act of the Roman Consul, Brutus, in con- 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 11 


demning his own son to death for conspiring to restore the mon¬ 
archy. 

The inhabitants consisted of four classes: Patricians, Clients, 
Plebeians, and slaves; the latter were bought and sold. 

The strangers were called Clients, because, possessing no civic 
privileges, they had to put themselves under the protection of 
some powerful citizens called Patrons. Client signifies listener. 

Consuls were two chief magistrates, appointed annually, who 
divided the power with Pontiffs. The latter were a college of 
priests who had charge of the religious ceremonials. The Pon¬ 
tiffs were the first builders of bridges over the Tiber; hence their 
name Pons, a bridge, and facio, to make. 

The Romans worshipped many gods and goddesses and con¬ 
sulted oracles. They adopted much of the Greek mythology and 
added to it many fables. 

The Gauls, inhabitants of a country now known as France, 
invaded Rome, sacked and burnt it 390 b.c., but the Romans 
ultimately expelled the invaders and subdued other petty nations 
in Italy. 

The Government of the Republic was attended with constant 
dissensions and a great degree of corruption. The source of dis¬ 
content w y as removed by an equalization of the privileges of the 
aristocracy and democracy. 

The privilege of being a Roman citizen was highly prized; it con¬ 
ferred the right to appeal to the tribunals at Rome for redress. 
The apostle Paul was an example of such appeal. 

During the Punic wars (246-146 b.c.) —wars between the 
Romans and Carthaginians—Rome became a maritime power. 

Carthage was in Africa on the shores of the Mediterranean 
Sea. It was destroyed by a Roman army, under Scipio iEmili- 
anus, 146 b.c., when the city, which contained 700,000 inhabitants, 
was razed to the ground. 

The Romans subjected Macedon and Greece 148 b.c. They 
afterwards subdued the Grecian power in Egypt and Asia. 

Pompey, a great Roman general and consul, effected conquests 
in Asia, took Jerusalem, and imposed a heavy tribute on the 
Jews. 

Julius C^sar, the greatest general the Roman Republic had 
produced, and one of the greatest the world ever knew, con¬ 
quered Gaul and invaded Britain. Caesar was assassinated at 
Rome, March 15tli, 44 b.c. It is now the opinion that he only 
seized upon supreme power to save the State from the dissolution 
likely to ensue from the most corrupt political system that then 
existed. 

The Roman Republic lasted from 509 b.c. to 30 b.c. The as¬ 
sassination of Caesar did not bring back the republic, but led to 
a long line of successive rulers. 


12 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Britain was added to the Roman dominion about 70 a.d. 

The Romans achieved their extraordinary conquests by their 
military skill, discipline, inordinate ambition, and spirit of 
patriotism. 

The population of Rome in the First Century of our era was 
about two millions. 

The Roman Empire began to decline about 217 a.d., and the 
division of the empire was about 284 a.d. Rome became the 
capital of the western division and Constantinople of the eastern 
portion. 

Four great empires, Assyrian, Persian, Graeco-Macedonian, 
and Roman perished on the dissolution of the Roman power. 

Romulus Augustulus was the last emperor of the west and 
was deposed 476 a.d. With this deposition, the empire ended, 
having lasted 1229 years. 

GENERAL HISTORY OF MODERN EUROPE. 

The history of Modern Europe commences with the fall of 
the Roman Empire in the west, and continues to the present 
time. It embraces nine remarkable periods, the epochs of which 
are: 

1. The fall of the Western Empire, 476 a.d. to 800 a.d. 

2. The re-establishment of that empire by Charlemagne 800 
to 962. 

8. The translation of the empire to Germany by Otho the 
Great 962 to 1074. 

4. The Accession of Henry IV. to the Imperial Crown and 
the Crusades 1074 to 1273. 

5. The Elevation of Rudolf of Hapsburg to the Imperial 
Throne 1273 to 1453. 

6. The Fall of the Empire of the East 1453 to 1648. 

7. The Peace of Westphalia 1648 to 1713. 

8. The Peace of Utrecht 1713 to 1789. 

9. The French Revolution to the present time 1789 to 1886. 

MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

Mediaeval History is the history between the fall of the 
Roman Empire 476, and the revival of learning about 1450; hence 
this interval of nearly a thousand years is usually styled the 
“ Middle Ages.” 

The Dark Ages were the early portions of the middle ages, 
when learning was nearly extinct. 

The Byzantine or Eastern Empire continued under various 
changes of dynasty till 1453. This empire was of a Greek and 
Asiatic character, and the Greek language was spoken. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 13 


The Franks were tribes of North Germany who, during the 
Fifth Century, invaded Gaul and founded what afterwards be¬ 
came known as France. Clovis was the first King of the Franks 
in Gaul. 

The Latin Church at that time was that branch presided 
over by the Bishop of Rome, which, in its services, employed the 
Latin language. 

The Bishop of Rome was usually styled the Pope, signifying 
Papa or Father. 

The first division of the Church was the separation of the 
Latin and Greek Churches. It took place in the Twelfth Cen¬ 
tury. The final rupture took place 1453 a.d. 

In the Seventh Century the great event of the origin and spread 
of Mohammedanism occurred. Mohammed was an Arabian, born 
at Mecca 570 a.d. He devised a religion of a belief in one God, 
whose prophet he declared himself. 

The Mohammedans, under the name of Saracens, established 
themselves in Spain 711 a.d. 

Charles Martel, a ruler of the Franks, or French, defeated 
the Saracens,in 732 a.d., and arrested forever the progress of 
Mohammedanism in Western Europe. 

Modern Europe is indebted to the Arabians for the common 
numerals, or figures; also our knowledge of algebra. 

During the middle ages the Church comprehended almost the 
whole learning of the period. 

The Turks were Tartar people professing Mohammedanism, 
and who seized Palestine. 

The Crusades were expeditions undertaken by several Chris¬ 
tian powers to rescue Palestine from the Turks. There were 
seven Crusades altogether, extending from 1096 till about 1290 
a.d. 

The general manners and habits of thought in the latter part of 
the middle ages were rude, and there was little safety for life 
and property. Scarcely any but priests could read or write. 
Serfdom prevailed; also a universal belief in fairies, witchcraft, 
etc. Famines and plagues were of frequent occurrence. 

Scandinavia was a northern region which now comprehends 
Denmark, Sweden and Norway. 

The Scandinavians about the year 1000 embraced Christianity; 
previous to that they worshipped a number of fabulous gods. 
The Normans was the name ordinarily given to the Scandina¬ 
vians. In 912 Charles the Simple was compelled to cede to them 
a portion of his kingdom, which was afterwards called Normandy. 

The Carlovingian dynasty was a race of Kings in France, 
commencing with Pepin, a son of Charles Martel, and lasted from 
752 till 986 a.d. 

Charlemagne was one of the sons of Pepin, who inherited the 


14 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


whole of his dominions, which he vastly extended by conquests 
in Germany, Italy, and other countries. He died 814 a.d. 

Louis le Debonaire, son of Charlemagne, succeeded him. He 
divided the vast kingdom among his three sons, Lothaire, Louis, 
and Charles. The last, styled Charles the Bald, received the king¬ 
dom of the Franks, which was now for the first time called France. 

The Capetian dynasty was the third of Frankish Kings, and 
began in 987 with Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, one of the great 
barons of the time. 

Venice, Genoa, Florence, Frankfort, Cologne, Niirnberg, 
Liege, Hamburg, and Lubeck were old and important free cities 
in continental Europe. 

The Slavonians were the progenitors of the Russians, Poles, 
and Bohemians in the east and north of Europe. They differed 
in language from the nations of the German type. 

China in the middle ages was inhabited by an ingenious race of 
people skilled in arts, and who traced their history to a remote 
antiquity. 

China was fully subdued by the Mongols, who established a 
Mongol dynasty from 1279 to 1868, when they were expelled by 
the Chinese, and the Ming Native dynasty succeeded. In 
1644 the East Tartars conquered the country and have ever since 
governed it. 

India in the middle ages was divided into many petty States, 
occupied by an ancient people known as Hindus, worshippers of 
Brahma, who was regarded as the creator of the universe , with 
whom is associated Vishnu, the preserver, and Siva, the destroyer. 

RUSSIAN HISTORY. 

In the earlier centuries of the Christian era, the Slavs drove 
the scattered Finnish tribes to the far North, and became the 
founders of the Russian Empire. But for centuries the country 
was divided into practically independent provinces. 

From 1380 to 1470 tribute was paid to the Tartars, but Ivan 
the Great broke their power, and his son and successor, Ivan 
the Terrible, contributed much to the greatness of Russia. 

The history of Russia assumes a regular character during the 
reign of Ivan I., from 1462 to 1505, when the country was freed 
from the Tartars and the civilized usages of modern Europe were 
introduced. Under Peter the First, surnamed Great, Russia really 
emerged from barbarism. 

Peter was noted for his distinguished abilities, and for the vast 
improvements effected during his reign. His was the most re¬ 
markable reign in Russian annals. 

The history of Russia is disfigured by assassinations and other 
violent measures to open the way to the throne. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 15 


The reigns of Catherine I. (1725-27) and Peter II. (1727-1730) 
were alike uneventful. 

Anna’s (Peter’s niece) reign is remarkable as the period when 
German influence became almost exclusive. Biron, to whom 
Anna intrusted the whole administration of the government, 
brought ou a revolution by his tyranny, which raised Elizabeth, 
Peter’s unmarried niece, to the throne in 1741. 

Peter III. reigned during the year 1762. He was assassinated 
by a court conspiracy, but the truth of this was doubted by the 
serfs, who hailed the rising of the Cossack pretender Pugatchif. 

The revolt of the Cossacks was quelled 1775, after assuming large 
proportions. Meanwhile Peter III. was succeeded by his consort, 
Catherine II., the friend of Voltaire. 

The most brilliant of her victories, the conquest of the Crimea, 
1783, revived the dream of a resuscitated Byzantine Empire. 

Her violent and eccentric son, Paul I., succeeded her. He allied 
himself with Austria and Britain against France, and was on the 
eve of war with Britain, when he was assassinated, 1801, making 
way for Alexander I., brother of Nicholas and uncle to the pres¬ 
ent emperor, in all of whose reigns Russia has made very import¬ 
ant advances* 

Nicholas I. succeeded Alexander I., and was followed by Alex¬ 
ander II., who removed the restrictions on the universities and 
the press, promoted the construction of railways, roads, and river 
steamers, and on March 3,1861, freed 23,000,000 serfs. 

Alexander II. was assassinated March 3, 1881. 

Nihilist conspiracies, assassinations and outrages against the 
Jews, the continued isolation of the Czar Alexander III. and his 
family have been the leading incidents in the recent history of 
Russia. 

SWEDISH HISTORY. 

The earliest inhabitants of Sweden, as of all Scandinavia, appear 
to have been Finnish peoples, who, in prehistoric times, were 
driven northwards by Teutonic races. 

The country was freed from the Danes by Gustavus Vasa, 
(Gustavus I.), and attained to national importance in 1525. 

There were three other kings named Gustavus: Gustavus II., 
III., IV., the most noted of whom was Gustavus II., generally 
known as Gustavus Adolphus (the “Lion of the North”), who was 
kdled at the battle of Lutzen, 1632. 

Charles XII., King of Sweden, was born 1682, and succeeded 
his father, Charles XI. in 1697, at which time Sweden was the 
most powerful nation in Northern Europe. He was a great mili¬ 
tary genius and some thought him insane. His great opponent 
was Peter the Great, of Russia. 

Peter decisively defeated Charles at Pultova, 1709, 

Charles XII, was killed at the siege of Friedrichshall, November 


1G SPARKS FROM THE ANYIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


30, 1718, and by his death, Sweden, exhausted by wars, ceased 
to be numbered among the great powers of Europe. 

The crown, at the death of Charles, fell to his sister Ulrika, 
who resigned it to her husband, Prince Friedrich, in 1720. The 
reign of the latter was a long period of humiliation. 

Adolf Frederic, of Holstein Gottorp, was followed in 1771 by 
his son Gustavus III., who destroyed the factions of the nobles 
and recovered much of the power of the crown. He was assassi¬ 
nated 1792, and was followed by his son Gustaf IV., who, in turn, 
was succeeded by his uncle Karl XIII. 

The war with Russia closed 1809. 

In 1810, on the election of a crown prince, the choice of the 
estates fell on Bernadotte, who mounted the throne as Karl XIV. 

In 1814 the crown of Norway was united with that of Sweden. 

Karl XIV. died in 1844 and was succeeded by his son Oscar I., 
followed by his son Oscar II. (1859), who, on his death in 1872, 
left the crown to his brother Oscar III., the present king. 

The long peace that Sweden has now enjoyed has greatly devel¬ 
oped her trade and increased her prosperity. 

GERMAN HISTORY. 

Prior to the nominal conquest by Coesar and other Roman Gen¬ 
erals, Germany was inhabited by semi-barbaric tribes, engaged 
in agriculture and the chase, and dwelling in villages and small 
towns. 

The German! in those times were warlike and independent, 
and successfully opposed the Romans in their efforts to subdue 
the country. 

Under Clovis, 481 a.d., the great Frankish Empire was 
formed. 

Charlemagne’s empire, 771-814, was of vast extent, reaching 
from the Baltic to the Adriatic, and from the Danube to the At¬ 
lantic. At the death of this great Emperor the empire was di¬ 
vided, and for many centuries the country was cut up into petty 
duchies and principalities. 

The Elector of Brandenburg attained prominence in the begin¬ 
ning of the Eighteenth Century. 

The title of Emperor was vested in various families. In 1273 
Count Rudolph, of Hapsburg, who was the founder of the House 
of Austria, attained kingly power. 

Under Charles V., Germany became the ruling nation of 
Europe. 

During the Middle Ages, and up to 1814, her territory was the 
battle ground of Europe, and her boundaries subject to constant 
changes. It was overrun by Napoleon, and in 1806 the Rhenish 
Confederation was formed; the Emperor Francis resigned the 
German Crown and the Empire was formally dissolved. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 17 


After the downfall of Bonaparte, a confederation of the States 
was formed, and for fifty years the confederation was swayed by 
Austria and Prussia. Gradually the power of Austria waned, 
and that of Prussia increased. 

After the first great success of the United German armies 
against the French, 1870-71, the imperial crown was placed on 
the head of King William of Prussia, and Germany became a 
united nation. 


AUSTRIAN HISTORY. 

The greatness of Austria began with its Hapsburg dynasty, 
which dynasty exists to this day. 

The Hapsburgs date from the end of the Thirteenth Century, 
and were a family of note which had long occupied the Castle of 
Hapsburg, near Brugg, on the left bank of the Aar, Switzerland. 

One of the princes of this ancient house, Rudolph, who was 
elected Emperor of Germany, acquired the Duchy of Austria and 
other possessions, to which his son Albert I. succeeded, 1291. 

Matthias Corvinus was King of Hungary at the middle of the 
Fifteenth Century, and was eminent for his valor, love of justice, 
learning, and the various improvements he effected in the coun¬ 
try. In 1467 he founded the University of Presburg. 

Ferdinand I. of Austria was brother of the Emperor Charles 
V., and ultimately inherited from him his German possessions. 
Ferdinand I. married the daughter of Louis II., King of Hungary 
and Bohemia, on whose death, 1526, he claimed these possessions, 
to which, after some national troubles, he succeeded. 

The connection of Austria with Hungary and Bohemia dates 
from 1526. 

Spain became an Austrian possession (1496) by the marriage of 
Philip, son of Maximillian. 

Philip’s son was Carlos I. of Spain, who became German Em¬ 
peror, under the title of Karl V., on the death of Maximillian in 
1519. Ferdinand I., also son of Philip, succeeded his brother 
Charles in 1556. On the death of Ferdinand, in 1564, the Austrian 
possessions were divided between his three sons, and not again 
united until 1619, under Ferdinand II. Then followed the 30 
years’ war caused by the attempt of Bohemia to place the Elector 
Palatine, Frederick V., on the throne. This was followed by the 
Spanish war of succession, 1701-1713, arising out of a struggle 
between Leopold II. and Louis XIV. of France for the Spanish 
crown. 

By the peace of Utrecht, 1713, concluded during the reign of 
Karl VI., the Netherlands, Mantua, Milan, Naples and Sicily 
were secured to Austria. The latter two were surrendered to Don 
Carlos of Spain 1737. 

2 


18 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


On the death of Karl VI. the male line of the Hapsburgs died 
out, and the heirship was claimed by Maria Theresa. 

The seven years’ war followed. 

Political changes begun by the Empress were extended after her 
death by her son Joseph II. 

Joseph II. died 1790, and was succeeded by his brother, Leopold 
II., Emperor of Germany. 

In 1792 Leopold was succeeded by his son Franz II. In 1804 
Franz proclaimed himself hereditary Emperor of Austria, with the 
title of Franz I. 

In 1832 Franz I. died, and left to his son Ferdinand I. the 
task of carrying on an oppressive system of government. 

Ferdinand I. abdicated (Dec. 2, 1848) in favor of his nephew 
Franz Joseph. 

In 1866, in the war between Austria and Prussia, Austria ceded 
Venetia to Italy. Since the close of this war Austria has, under 
the reign of the present Emperor, Francis Joseph, enjoyed pros¬ 
perity and peace. 

SPANISH HISTORY. 

The Peninsula of Spain was inhabited by Celts and Iberian 
tribes when the Phoenicians reached it and founded colonies along 
its coasts. 

The Phoenicians were followed by the Greeks, and then by the 
Carthaginians. The latter made the country the principal sup¬ 
port of their empire and the basis of their wars with the Romans. 

The Romans succeeded in driving their adversaries out of the 
country in the second century before Christ. At the beginning 
of our era the Peninsula was a flourishing Roman province. A 
number of Roman emperors and authors were born there. 

Christianity was early introduced. 

The Northern races which overthrew the Roman Empire in¬ 
vaded also the Peninsula. First the Vandals and Sueves con¬ 
quered the}country at the beginning of the Fifth century; then to¬ 
wards the end of this century the Visigoths expelled both the 
Romans and the German tribes, and became masters of the "whole 
country. The Visigoths were Arians. 

In 711 a.d. the Arabs invaded the Peninsula from Africa, de¬ 
feated the Visigoths, and conquered the country in three years, 
with the exception of the northern mountain regions. The Arabs 
made Spain a province of Bagdad. They crossed the Pyrenees 
to conquer France, but were defeated by Charles Martel in 732. 

The war between Spanish Christians and the Arab Mohamme¬ 
dans lasted for 800 years. The Arabs founded a flourishing empire 
which became the starting point for all Europe of the arts and 
sciences. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 19 


In 1085 the Spaniards reconquered their old capital, Toledo. 
The Cid was the hero of that century. 

At the beginning of the Twelfth Century, the Christians occu¬ 
pied one half of the country, divided into four kingdoms. A 
union of the kingdoms (finally merged into two) took place 1469, 
when Ferdinand Y. and Isabella—the rulers of the two kingdoms 
—became joint sovereigns. 

In 1492 the Arabs lost their last possession, Granada. It was 
during this year that Christopher Columbus, under the auspices of 
Isabella, discovered the West India Islands. 

Joanna succeeded her mother Isabella in 1504. 

Charles, grandson of Ferdinand, assumed the reins of govern¬ 
ment in 1517. He united the Netherlands to Spain, and in 1519 
was elected Emperor of Germany. During his long rein Spain 
reached the culmination of her prosperity. 

Charles relinquished the government to his son Philip II. in 
1556, and went into religious retirement. 

Philip lost the Netherlands 'in 1581, and died 1599. He was suc¬ 
ceeded by Philip III. Under this latter weak king the decline of 
Spain was rapid. 

In 1609 more than 1,000,000 Moors were expelled from Spain. 
By this act Spain lost a vast amount of skilled labor and manu¬ 
facturing knowledge. 

Philip IV. ascended the throne in 1626. 

Charles II., son of the preceding, and last king of Spain of the 
line of Hapsburg, reigned from 1668 to 1700, during which reign 
the population decreased from 11,000,000 to 8,000,000. 

The Bourbons succeeded to the throne in the person of Philip 
V., of Anjou. During this reign French influence prevailed. 

Ferdinand VI., son of the preceding, became king at the death 
of Charles, 1746; succeeded by his brother Charles III., 1759. 

In 1767 the Jesuits were expelled. 

Charles IV., son of Charles III., became king 1788. 

On June 5th, 1808, Napoleon appointed his brother Joseph, 
king. The latter fled from Madrid August 11th, 1812. 

In 1813 the French were expelled from Spain, and Ferdinand 
VII. was invited to the throne. 

Feb. 22,1819, the Floridas were sold to the United States for 
$5,000,000. 

September 29, 1833, Maria Christina, wife of Ferdinand VII., 
grasped the reins of government in the name of her daughter 
Queen Isabella. Don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand, protested, and 
laid claims to the throne in accordance with the “Salic law.” 
The Salic law excluded from the throne female descendants. 

In October, 1840, the Queen Regent abdicated, and Espartero 
was elected Regent 1841. Spain was now and for a long time beset 
with civil wars; first one leader and then another was placed at 


20 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


the head of the government, and general confusion prevailed. On 
September 30, 1868, Isabella was expelled from Spain and went 
to France. 

In 1869 Serrano was elected Regent, and on November 16th, 
1870, Prince Amadeus of Savoy was elected king by the Cortes. 
He abdicated, February 11th, 1873. Carlist insurrections followed, 
and on December 29th, 1874, Prince Alfonso, son of Isabella, was 
proclaimed king. 

Alfonso died 1885, and Christine, his second wife, succeeded 
him as Queen Regent. 

FRENCH HISTORY. 

The earliest historic inhabitants of France were Celts, 
known as Gauls, who held all modern France, except the south- 
western part, which belonged to the Aquitanians, or Basques, a 
people akin to the Iberians. 

The Gauls were blue-eyed and yellow-haired, brave and intelli¬ 
gent, mobile and keen-witted, full of unstable heroism and delight¬ 
ing in brilliant colors and barbaric display. 

Before Caesar’s invasion the strength of the Gauls had been 
sapped by the pleasures and splendors of Rome. 

In campaign after campaign Caesar routed the Gauls, and the 
capture of Alesia laid the whole country at his feet (b.c. 51). 
From this time to a.d. 476 Gaul was a province of the Roman 
State. 

Before the Third Century, Gaul was studded with fair cities, 
centres of commerce and luxury. 

Christianity was introduced in its Greek form in 160 a.d., 
by Pothinus. 

In the first half of the Fifth Century the barbarians who were 
breaking up the Roman Empire poured into Gaul, and the 
Franks established a fluctuating power along the lower Rhine. 

Modern France dates from the rise of the Parisian mon¬ 
archy of the Capets. The following appears to be the different 
dynasties: 

The Merovingian dynasty began a.d. 420, with Pharamond, 
the first king of the Franks, and ended with the rule of Charles 
Martel, under the title of Duke, with whom the Carlovingian 
dynasty ended at the death of Louis V., a.d. 987, when Hugh 
Capet usurped the throne, and when commenced the first branch 
of the Capetian dynasty, or third race. 

The second branch of this dynasty began a.d. 1328, with the 
house of Valois. 

In a.d. 1495 began the house of Valois-Orleans. 

In 1515 power was centered in the house of Valois-Angouleme. 
The third branch, the house of Bourbon, succeeded that power, 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 21 


a.d. 1589, and continued until the French Revolution, 1789, 
when commenced the limited monarchy. 

This monarchy gave way to the republican government, the 
23d September, 1792. The latter form of government merged 
into that of the consular government, 1800. 

In May, 1802, Bonaparte was chosen first consul for life, and in 
1804 he was crowned as Emperor by Pope Pius VII. 

On April 7, 1814, Napoleon resigned the crown, and the island 
of Elba was ceded to him. 

Louis XVIII. was then recalled to the throne, but Napoleon 
reappearing in France, March 1, 1815, King Louis and his ad¬ 
herents left the country. Louis returned after Napoleon’s defeat 
at Waterloo, and Napoleon was then banished to St. Helena (1815). 

Louis died September, 1824, and was succeeded by Charles X., 
brother of the deceased king. 

The coronation of Charles took place at Rheims, May, 1826. 

The revolution of July, 1830, drove Charles X. from the 
throne of France and sealed Louis Philippe D’Orleans in his 
place. The latter’s stubborn enmity to reform caused his abdi¬ 
cation in 1848 and the establishment of a republic. 

Louis Napoleon became President of France in 1848, and by 
the Coup d’Etat of 1851, Emperor. 

The Napoleonic Absolutism endured until 1870, when Louis 
Napoleon was deposed and a republic instituted at Paris. 

M. Thiers became the head of the provisional government, 
which he held until May 23, 1873, when he was succeeded by 
Marshal MacMalion, who in turn was succeeded by M. Grevy, the 
present republican ruler of France (1886). 

BRITISH HISTORY. 

The British Islands are first mentioned as being inhabited by 
the same Celtic race as that in Gaul, and who had made some 
progress in the arts and regular government previous to the 
Christian era. 

The word Britain is from Brit, painted, the ancient inhabitants 
having painted their bodies. 

Albion signifies a country of heights. 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain 55 b.c. The third inva¬ 
sion took place 43 a.d., when Caractacus, a brave British 
prince, was made prisoner and carried to Rome. Agricola, a 
Roman general, practically subdued Britain in 79 a.d., planting 
permanent camps and fighting some great battles. He found the 
inhabitants living in the north of Britain unconquerable on 
account of their inaccessibility. 

The Romans constructed walls across the island as a security 
against their assaults. The first wall was built 121 a.d. 


22 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


The Romans occupied Britain between 300 and 400 years. 

The two separate narratives concerning England and Scotland 
remained distinct until 1707, when the two nations were united. 

Scotland became consolidated under one monarchy before the 
English were in a condition to attack it, and thus maintained for 
a long period her independence. 

Ireland was attached by conquest to England while it was 
under the rule of petty kings, and its history is merged in that of 
England. 

St. Patrick was a monk sent from Rome, 432 a.d., to preach 
in Ireland. His mission was successful, and he has the fame of 
Christianizing the Irish people. He died in Ireland 460 a.d. 

The Saxons arrived in England 449 a.d., and after assisting the 
Britons in their wars they made themselves masters of the country. 

The Saxons and Angles were war-like tribes from Germany, 
near the Baltic. 

The native Britons generally submitted to the Saxons and 
Angles, but many sought refuge in the mountains of Wales, 
and others fled to that part of France called Brittany. 

Arthur was king of the Welsh at the beginning of the Sixth Cen¬ 
tury; he died 542, mortally wounded in battle. 

The rule of the Heptarchy (seven kings) lasted until 827, when 
Egbert united the whole into one kingdom, marking the origin of 
the kingdom of England. 

During the reign of Alfred, grandson of Egbert, 871, the Danes 
invaded England, but were afterwards expelled by Alfred. The 
Danes again invaded England in 1013, and established a Danish 
dynasty, which consisted of four Danish kings. The Danes rav¬ 
aged Ireland in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. 

^ „The nobles in Anglo-Saxon times bore the name of Earls, among 
whom was an officer called Ealdorman—olderman—modern term 
alderman. 

Edward the Confessor restored the old dynasty in 1042. 

The battle of Hastings was fought October 14, 1066, between 
William of Normandy and Harold. This battle was a leading 
event, for it terminated the rule of the Anglo-Saxons and intro¬ 
duced the Norman-French dynasty. 

William I., though king of England, retained his Norman 
dukedom, from which to this day the English hold the channel 
islands Guernsey and Jersey. 

The present border of England and Scotland was settled about 
1157. 

The Plantagenet dynasty originated on the decease of Stephen, 
in 1154. 

Ireland was attached to the British monarchy in 1171, but the 
English rule was not confirmed until 1210. 


SPARKS PROM THE ANVIL OP KNOWLEDGE. 


23 


The first regular English Parliament was constituted in 1265. 
The first regular Irish Parliament 1295. 

The Sttjart dynasty began in Scotland with Pobert II. 

Calais, in France, was captured by the English in 1347 and re¬ 
mained in their possession 211 years. 

The Tudor dynasty began with Henry VII. 

The affairs of Ireland at this period were administered by a 
Lord Deputy, appointed by the English sovereign, 1486. 

Henry VII. was the founder of the colonial empire of Eng¬ 
land. 

The cause of the reformation in England was a quarrel between 
Henry VIII. and the Pope. The Pope declared the marriage of 
Henry with Anne Boleyn unlawful, and excommunicated him; 
thereupon Henry threw off the Papal power and assumed to be the 
supreme head of the church in 1534. 

In the reign of Henry VIII., then supreme head of the 
church, poverty, crime and violence prevailed, and 73,000 persons 
were executed. 

In the reign of Elizabeth, in the Sixteenth Century, were com¬ 
menced the North American colonies. 

James VT., of Scotland, succeeded Elizabeth in 1608. This was 
the commencement of the Stuart dynasty in England, and is 
known as the union of the crowns. 

The term Great Britain was introduced in 1604, when James I. 
was styled King of Great Britain. 

The Puritans were a religious party in the reign of Elizabeth. 
They rejected the “Book of Common Prayer.” Their principles 
took a more permanent hold in Scotland and they rose to import¬ 
ance in the reign of James I. in England. 

Baronets were first created by James I., in 1611; the title and 
rank were first purchased by persons in the rank of gentlemen for 
£ 1000 . 

' The Pilgrim Fathers were a body of English non-conform- 
ers who had fled from persecution into Holland. They returned 
to England and embarked on a vessel called the Mayflower, land¬ 
ing at Cape Cod, Massachusetts, December 11, 1620. 

Charles the First was beheaded January 30, 1648. 

The Commonwealth was a government established at this 
time, nominally a republic, the head of which was Oliver Crom¬ 
well. Neither the Scotch nor the Irish accepted the Common¬ 
wealth, but Cromwell forced it upon them. Many of the fine 
monuments of antiquity in Ireland were at this time laid in ruin. 

Cromwell was appointed Lord Protector April 20, 1653, 
which position he occupied until his death, 1658. 

Monarchy was restored, amidst universal rejoicings, May 8, 
1660, by proclaiming Charles II. king. 

The Great Plague in London raged in 1665, when, it is said, 


24 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


as many as 100,000 died. The great fire in London was Sep¬ 
tember 2, 1666. 

The Church of England was reinstated at the restoration of 
the monarchy. 

The Society of Quakers was originated about this time by 
George Fox. They suffered much persecution and were trans¬ 
ported to Massachusetts, where they were treated with greater 
severity by the Pilgrim Fathers and other settlers. 

To Roger Williams, who died at Providence, R. I., 1683, be¬ 
longs the distinguished honor of being the first person in authority 
who proclaimed and reduced to practice the principle of perfect relig¬ 
ious equality and toleration. 

Charles II. died 1685 and was succeeded by James II., of 
England. 

William III., Prince of Orange, at this date was invited to 
come to England and conduct the government, and in England 
and Scotland William, Prince of Orange, and Mary were pro¬ 
claimed joint sovereigns in 1689. 

The battle of Boyne was fought on the banks of the river 
Boyne, in Ireland, between James and William, 1690. William 
gained a complete victory and reigned as William III. until his 
death in 1702, when he was succeeded by Anne, the daughter of 
the exile, James II. 

Gibraltar was captured from the Spaniards in 1704, and has 
been held by the English ever since. 

Queen Anne died August 1, 1714. She was the last member of 
the house of Stuart. George I., Elector of Hanover, succeeded 
to the throne on the same day. He died June 11, 1727, and was 
succeeded by his son, George II. George II. died October 25, 
1760, and was succeeded by his grandson, George III. 

During the reign of the latter George, the American war com¬ 
menced, beginning April 18, 1775, and it continued until 1782, 
ending in the acknowledgment by George III. of the absolute 
independence of the colonies. In the early part of this reign the 
steam engine was perfected, spinning machinery and the power loom 
were invented. 

The Irish rebellion broke out in 1798. The rebellion was 
caused by the hopelessness on the part of the Irish of procuring 
redress for a variety of national grievances by lawful and consti¬ 
tutional means. 

The Union with Ireland, unpopular with the latter country, 
took place in 1801, but was carried by liberal bribes among the 
native legislators. 

George—Prince of Wales—son of George III., was appointed 
Prince Regent in 1811, and he succeeded as king under the title 
of George IV. in 1820. 

George IV. died 1830 and was succeeded by his brother William 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 25 


IY. The latter died in 1837, and was succeeded in turn by his 
niece, Victoria, daughter and only child of Edward, Duke of 
Kent. 

Victoria was born May 24, 1819, and married Prince Albert, 
February 10, 1840. The Prince Consort died December 14, 1861. 

The East India Company was chartered in 1600 and came to a 
close November 1, 1858, when the sovereignty of Queen Victoria 
was substituted for the rule of the company. The Prince of 
Wales, Albert Edward, oldest son of Queen Victoria and heir ap¬ 
parent, was born November 19, 1841. History will ever accord 
to the English people the fame of being one of the greatest 
nations that ever existed. 

IRISH HISTORY. 

There is no other country in the world the history of which has 
been commented upon in so unjust a temper and tone as that of 
Ireland. v 

Almost everything in regard to Ireland is legendary and uncer¬ 
tain till the Fifth Century, a.d., when the inhabitants are called 
Scots. v*. 

About the time that the south coast of Britain was harassed by 
invaders, the Scots were passing in fleets of coracles from the 
coast of Antrim to found the little kingdom of Scotland, in the 
south and west of Argyle. 

Christianity had found its way to Ireland before the appearance 
of St. Patrick, but it only attained its complete supremacy about 
a century after his death. 

Towards the end of the Sixth Century extensive monasteries 
arose throughout the island, and these soon became the illustrious 
centres of letters and arts. 

But the Celtic church, which had risen to power so rapidly, 
shared the fate of the clan system, on which its government was 
based, and by the Twelfth Century its learning had disappeared, 
but the church only shared in a general anarchy that it was un¬ 
able to check. 

From the earliest times Ireland seems to have been divided 
into the four principalities, Ulster, Leinster, Munster, and Con¬ 
naught, being subject to the central authority of the King of 
Leinster, whose territorial possession was Meath, and who usu¬ 
ally resided at Tara. 

The incursions of the Danes began about the end of the Eighth 
Century, and led to a series of destructive struggles that lasted 
for 300 years, and gradually extinguished Irish civilization. 

In 1169 Dermot MacMurragli, King of Leinster, paid homage 
to Henry II., asked of him and obtained aid to recover his do¬ 
minions, from which he had been driven by one of the endless 


26 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


tribal wars. He succeeded in liis purposes, and added to his 
former possessions Dublin and other eastern towns. 

Richard of Clare, surnamed Strong-bow, married Eva (Dermot’s 
daughter), and succeeded (1171) to the kingship of Leinster; but 
to appease Henry was forced to surrender Dublin to the crown, 
and to do homage for his dominion as an English lordship. 

In 1172 Henry visited Ireland with a large force, received 
homage from all the native rulers save the King of Connaught 
and the chiefs of Ulster. Before canying out his scheme of com¬ 
plete conquest he was recalled by the troubles in Normandy, but 
he granted charters to Anglo-Norman adventurers to take pos¬ 
session of the independent parts of the island by force. DeCourcy 
entered Ulster and settled at Downpatrick. 

In 1184 Henry made his youngest son, John, Lord of Ireland, 
but the levity of the young prince excited disturbances which led 
to his recall. 

The Irish, with an allied Scottish force under Edward Bruce, 
were defeated on the bloody field of Athenry (1316) with a loss of 
11,000 men, including almost the whole of the great clan of the 
O’Connors. 

The statute of Kilkenny (1367) in vain forbade any man of 
English blood to adopt the Irish name, dress or language. 

Richard II. reduced the whole island to subjection, but the 
withdrawal of his soldiers was the signal for a return to misrule. 

The barons were again all-powerful, but Henry finally subjected 
them, and he set himself to the task of making Ireland English. 

In 1541 Henry assumed the title of King of Ireland, and the 
island was again plunged into strife by the endeavor to thrust 
upon it the Reformation doctrines. 

In 1567 Sir Henry Sidney defeated the valorous Shane O’Neill, 
the successor to the earldom of Tyrone. 

A formidable revolt occurred in 1598, which was only quelled 
after three years’ hard fighting, when a chain of forts was thrown 
across the conquered country, and the work of devastation was 
completed by a famine. 

The chiefs were legally deprived of their tribal authority and 
reduced simply to nobles or landowners. 

The clansmen rose from subjects into tenants, rendering to 
their lords only fixed dues and services. 

In the reign of James I. was effected the great revolutionary 
measure known as the “Plantation of Ulster” (1610). Two 
thirds of the north of Ireland, declared to have been confiscated 
to the crown, was cleared of Irishry and allotted to new Scotch 
and English settlers. 

Strafford cowed Ireland for a time, but a revolt followed, which 
was crushed out by Cromwell, and the determined but hopeless 
defense of Limerick was the last display of national bravery. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 27 


For the next hundred years Ireland remained passive under a 
terrible legal tyrrany. The stringent penal statutes against the 
Catholics caused the rebellion of 1798, ’which was suppressed at 
Vinegar Hill, and The Act of Union with Great Britain, brought 
about by bribery and corruption, passed into law January 1, 
1801. From this time the history of Ireland is merged into that 
of Great Britain. 

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

Iceland was discovered by shipwrecked Danes about 900 a.d. 
The discovery of Greenland by some of the Danes who had gone 
to live in Iceland followed a few years later. 

Eric tiie Red early went from Iceland to Greenland to live, 
and reports brought by adventurous sailors of coasts seen by 
them when in quest of Greenland, induced Lief, one of the sons 
of Eric, to go in search of these strange lands. This was about 
the year 1000. The first land made is supposed to have been 
Newfoundland, then Nova Scotia, and finally Cape Cod. They 
landed on the Coast of Massachusetts and put up log houses. 
They finally-returned to Greenland. 

In those early times intelligence of what occurred was a long 
time in reaching the world at large. Hence a long period elapsed 
before we hear of any new attempts at discovery of new lands. 
There are evidences, however, that the Norsemen found their 
w r ay down the coast of North America as far as Rhode Island, 
and it is supposed that the round tower still at Newport, R. I., 
was built by them long before the time of Columbus. 

The first inhabitants of America met with by early discoverers 
were tall and straight, with dark red skins and coarse, straight 
black hair, and were called Indians, as it was then thought that 
America was a part of India. They lived by hunting and fish¬ 
ing, dwelt in conical huts, and the women did all the drudgery. 

During the latter part of the Fifteenth Century, Christopher 
Columbus, a native of Genoa, who was a shipowner and traded 
with Asia, lost his vessel in a sea-fight near the coast of Portugal. 
He succeeded in reaching the shore by swimming and found his 
way to Lisbon. 

Columbus, different from the masses who lived in his time, had 
long entertained the idea that the world was round and that the 
distance to Asia would be much shortened by sailing due west. 
After trying and failing to obtain aid to carry out his views in 
Italy, in 1484 he went to Portugal, and failing there, he was finally 
assisted by Isabella of Spain, who fitted out for him three ships 
and he set sail on his voyage of discovery in 1492. This voyage 
resulted in the discovery of San Salvador and the rest of the West 
India islands. During his fourth voyage in 1498 he discovered 
South America. 


28 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


When what Columbus had done was made known in England, 
John Cabot, by leave of the king, made his way to the new world. 

The Cabots" were followed by English, French, and other 
voyagers, who planted colonies in the new world. 

Our space permits us to note only, that— 

Florida was settled by the Spaniards at Tallahassee in 1515. 
Virginia*, 1607, by the English at Jamestown. 

New York,* 1614, by the Dutch at New York. 

Massachusetts,* 1620, by the English Puritans at Plymouth. 
New Hampshire,* 1623, by the English at Dover. 

New Jersey,* 1624, by the Dutch and Danes at Trenton. 

Maine, 1625, by the English at Augusta, 

Delaware,* 1627, by the Swedes and Finns at Dover. 
Connecticut,* 1633, by the English from Mass., at Hartford. 
Maryland,* 1634, by the English, at Annapolis. 

Rhode Island,* 1663, by the English at Providence. 

North Carolina,* 1663, by the English at Albemarle. 

Wisconsin, 1669, by the French at Green Bay. 

Michigan, 1670, by the French at Detroit. 

South Carolina,* 1670, by the English at Port Royal. 
Pennsylvania,* 1682, by the English at Philadelphia. 
Arkansas, 1685, by the French at Arkansas Post. 

Texas, 1690, by the Spaniards at San Antonio. 

Indiana, 1690, by the French at Vincennes. 

Louisiana, 1699, by the French at Iberville. 

Alabama, 1711, by the French at Mobile. 

Mississippi, 1716, by the French at Natchez. 

Illinois, 1720, by the French at Kaskaskia. 

Vermont, 1725,. from Massachusetts, at Fort Dummer. 
Georgia,* 1733, by the English at Savannah. 

Tennessee, 1757, from North Carolina at Fort London. 
Missouri, 1764, by the French at St. Louis. 

California, 1769, by the Spaniards at San Diego. 

Kentucky, 1775, from Virginia, at Boonesboro. 

Ohio, 1788, from New England, at Marietta. 

Oregon, 1811, from New York, at Astoria. 

Iowa, 1833, from New England, at Burlington. 

Minnesota, 1846, from New England, at St. Paul. 

Kansas, 1850, from New England and Western States, at Fort 
Leavenworth. 

Nevada, 1861, from California, at Washoe. 

West Virginia, 1862 (see Virginia), formed from Virginia. 
Nebraska, 1854, from New England and Western States. 
Colorado, 1858, from the Western States. 


* The thirteen original States. 



SPARKS PROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 29 


In 1765 the Stamp Act was imposed on tlie American Colon¬ 
ists, and in 1775 the first fight occurred at Lexington, which 
resulted in the Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. 
After a war of eight years the independence of the Colonies was 
acknowledged by George III. 

The first President was George Washington, who served 
two terms, from 1789 to 1797, when he was followed by John 
Adams, during whose term, 1800, the government centred at 
Washington. 

Thomas Jefferson was the next president, from 1801 to 1809; 
then followed James Madison, 1809 to 1817. During this term 
war was declared with England (1812), lasting three years. This 
war originated from the denial by America of the asserted nglit of 
search of American vessels by the English. 

From 1817 to 1825 the presidential chair was occupied by James 
Monroe. In this term, 1819, the Northern boundary line was con¬ 
firmed, also at this period was announced the “ Monroe doctrine” 
of non-interference on the part of the United States in European 
affairs, nor permitting European interference on this Continent. 

John Quincy Adams was president from 1825 to 1829. 

Andrew Jackson from 1829 to 1837. In 1835 the national debt 
was wiped out. 

Martin Van Buren presided from 1837 to 1841. 

Wm. Henry Harrison was next elected, but died shortly after- 
taking the chair, and was succeeded by John Tyler, whose term 
ended 1845; then followed James K. Polk, from 1845 to 1849. 

In 1848 the Mormons settled Utah, having been driven out of 
Illinois. 

Zachary Taylor was elected 1849; he died during his term, and 
was succeeded by Millard Fillmore; after whom came Franklin 
Pierce, 1853 to 1857; when James Buchanan followed, from 1857 
to 1861. 

This latter year was that of secession, and ten States formed a 
Southern Confederacy, and civil war began, which lasted until 
1865, ending in the success of the Northern States. 

Abraham"Lincoln was inaugurated in 1861. He proclaimed 
the emancipation of slaves 1863, was assassinated 1865, and 
was succeeded by Andrew Johnson, whose term lasted until 
1869, when he was succeeded by Ulysses S. Grant, who served 
two terms. 

R. B. Hayes presided from 1877 to 1881. James A. Garfield 
was the next president, and was assassinated the first year of his 
office, when Chester A. Arthur became president. Arthur was 
succeeded by Grover A. Cleveland 1885. 

The United States have grown from a small number of inhabit¬ 
ants to 55,000,000 people. 

The war of Mexico (1846) resulted in the defeat of the Mexi- 


30 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


cans, and the cession of California (1858) and large parts of 
Mexico to the United States. 

Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7,000,000. 

In America was built the first practical steamboat (by Robert 
Fulton, at New York, 1807), and the first telegraphic instrument 
(invented by Prof. Morse) was used for the first message May 27, 
1844. 

The first steamboat that ever crossed the Atlantic was the Savan¬ 
nah, from Savannah to Liverpool, in 1819, the trip being made 
in seventeen days. 

America is the home of many useful inventions, such as the 
cotton gin, improved reapers and mowers, improvement in 
printing presses, the telephone, etc. With the highest offices of 
the government open to all, with freedom of worship guaranteed, 
with education free to every one, and with a country of bound¬ 
less resources, the future of the American citizen is a flattering 
one. It rests with the people themselves whether their happiness 
and prosperity shall indefinitely continue. 

LANGUAGE. 

Philology is a science dealing with the whole body of language. 
It is partly historical and partly physical. Historical, because it 
traces the gradual evolution of human thought, as recorded in 
language; physical, because the articulate sounds through which 
that thought must find its utterance are subject to the restraints 
of physiological conditions. It is one of the youngest of the sci¬ 
ences, dating only from the opening years of the present century. 

The first step on the pathway of linguistic knowledge was taken 
by the grammarians of Alexandria, who analyzed the Greek lan¬ 
guage for the purpose of teaching it to the youth of Rome. To 
them we owe our present terminology. 

The term Semitic, now used to designate one of the great fam¬ 
ilies of language, is derived from the name Sliem in Gen. xi. 21. 

The Semitic languages fall into three groups: 1, the Aramaic 
or Northern; 2, the Hebrew or Middle; 3, the Arabic or Southern. 

The boundaries within which the Semitic languages are spoken 
have hardly ever changed, and may be described as the moun¬ 
tains of Armenia in the North; those which limit the Tigris basin 
in the East, and the Red Sea with certain portions of Asia Minor 
on the West. In these languages every thing is painted from its 
external appearance, so that even words of the mind are denoted 
by words which describe a physical condition, e.g., pride, by lift¬ 
ing up the head, etc. They have no inherent capacity, such as 
we see in those of the Aryan family, for dealing with the abstract 
and ideal. 

Aryan is the name now applied to a group of languages and 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 31 

r 

races which formerly went under the name of Indo-European or 
Indo-Germanic. The original home of the ancestors of the 
Aryan races is held by universal consent to have been the plateau 
of Central Asia. 

To the Aryan group of languages belong the Sanscrit, Hin¬ 
dustani, Greek, Latin, Celtic, German, English and other tongues. 
(For more extended information on this subject see Whitney’s 
Life and Growth of Language: New York, 1875.) 

LITERATURE. 

Under the name of literature are embraced history, philosophy, 
poetry, prose, etc., and it may be defined as the writings con¬ 
tained in books in ancient and modern times. 

In literature epic poetry is a long narrative poem, dealing gen¬ 
erally with heroic or superhuman persons and events, with roman¬ 
tic or supernatural exploits and adventures. 

Lyric poetry is the expression of the poet’s own feelings. The 
song, either sacred or secular, is the finest form of the lyric. 

Idyll was at first strictly a short pastoral poem, but did not 
long retain a solely pastoral character, but sometimes gave 
glimpses of town as well as country life. 

Dramatic poetry is divided into tragic and comic. 

Tragedy is a grave drama. Comedy is a sportive, witty and 
amusing drama, and opera is a musical drama. 

GRECIAN LITERATURE. 

In Greece, or Hellas, poetry was the earliest birth of literature. 
The earliest extant Hellenic poems, and certainly the greatest, are 
the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer (962-927 b.c.). 

The Century 950-850 b.c. may be said to have witnessed the 
dawn, noon and sunset of epic poetry in Hellas. Next in order 
came the lyric, elegiac, and iambic poets (800-530 b.c.), among 
whom were Sappho and Anacreon. 

The most distinguished period of Grecian literature and philos¬ 
ophy extended from about 500-146 b.c. 

Eschylus, born 525 b.c., is usually styled the “Father of 
Tragedy.” 

Pindar, another famous Greek poet, was born 520 b.c. 

Sophocles, a celebrated Greek dramatist, 495 b.c. 

iEsop is said to have been a freed Greek slave, who lived about 
550 b.c. 

Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher 570 b.c. 

Esculapius was a physician rendered famous by Homer. 

Hippocrates, an eminent Greek physician (460 b.c.), claimed 
to have descended from Esculapius. 


32 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Aristotle (383 b.c.), a Greek philosopher, had Alexander the 
Great as one of his pupils. 

The ancient philosophers taught that the world was stationary, 
in the centre of the heavens, and that the sun revolved around it, 
a theory maintained until the discoveries of Copernicus. 

Socrates, a Greek philosopher, had among his pupils Alcibi- 
ades, Crito, Xenophon, Aristippus, Phsedon and Plato. 

Socrates taught that there was but one divine being, whose 
favor can only be propitiated by a blameless life. He sacrificed 
and prayed, however, at the heathen altars. He drank the poison 
b.c. 339. 

Plato, the greatest of Greek philosophers, was born 429 b.c. 
His original name was Aristocles, and he was called Plato, from 
plains , broad, on account of his breadth of chest and forehead. 

Platonic affection is a doctrine of Plato, that happiness consists 
of a union of kindred souls in the love and zealous search for 
truth. 

The Cynics were a set of Greek philosophers noted for the mo¬ 
rose and snarling character of their doctrines. They were estab¬ 
lished by Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates (b.c. 426). 

Diogenes, who must be considered a religious fanatic of the 
sect of Cynics, died 324 b.c. 

Zeno was born 366 b.c. He studied with the Cynics and found¬ 
ed the Stoics. Stoical philosophy absorbed that of the Cynics, 
was less severe, but callous of feeling, and sanctioned the princi¬ 
ple of self-destruction. 

Democritus (470 b.c.) taught the doctrine of the eternal exist¬ 
ence of atoms. 

The Epicureans, followers of Epicurus (b.c. 341), taught 
that pleasure, apart from vicious or sensual indulgence, is the 
chief good. Herodotus, the “ Father of History” (384 b.c.), was 
the earliest Greek historian. The geographic accounts of Hero¬ 
dotus have been generally verified and prized for their accuracy. 

Thucydides (b.c. 471), a contemporary of Herodotus, was the 
most philosophical of Ancient historians, and noted for accuracy, 
profundity and dignity of style. 

Xenophon (450 b.c.), a pupil of Socrates, was a celebrated 
Greek general and writer. 

Euclid, born at Alexandria (300 b.c.), Was the world’s famous 
geometer. His “elements” are still the standard authority in 
Britain for the student to obtain the first principles of geometry. 

Polybius (204 b.c.) is noted for his History of Rome, from its 
capture by the Gauls to the subjugation of Macedonia. 

Strabo (66 b.c.) and Pausanius (150 a.d.) were two later 
Greek geographers; their writings, with those of Herodotus and 
Ptolemy, of Alexandria (139 a.d.), furnish the chief information 
about ancient countries. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


33 


Plutarch (80 b.c.) taught philosophy in Rome, and no one in 
ancient or modern time has excelled him as a biographer. 

ROMAN LITERATURE. 

The Romans were not as distinguished for philosophy and lit¬ 
erature as the Greeks, but in history and jurisprudence they rank 
higher. 

The most brilliant period of Roman literature was from 81 b.c. 
to 14 a.d., about ninety-five years. 

Among the most distinguished Romans for literature, learning, 
and general accomplishments were: 

Plautus (284 b.c.), the greatest Roman comic poet. 

Terence (195 b.c.), the greatest Roman comic dramatist. 

Cicero (106 b.c.), the greatest orator of Rome. 

Varro was a great writer and a friend of Cicero. 

Roscius (68 b.c.) was a celebrated comic actor. 

Lucretius (95 b.c.) a famous didactic poet. 

Sallust (86 b.c.) a noted historian. 

Seneca, famed for his rhetoric and ethics, committed suicide 
65 A.D. 

Livy (59 b.c.) was the most illustrious of Roman historians. 

Julius Caesar, the great statesman and general, was assassi¬ 
nated 44 b.c. 

Ovid (43 b.c.) was a famous poet. 

Horace (65 b.c.), most illustrious of Roman poets and writers. 

Virgil (70 b.c.) was distinguished for his epic, didactic and 
pastoral poetry. 

Vitruvius, time of Augustus, was noted for his writings on 
architecture. 

Pliny, the elder (23 a.d. ), was an eminent writer on natural 
history. 

Pliny, the younger (61 a.d.), was noted for his epistles, in which 
he gives an account of the early Christians. 

Quintillian (90 a.d.) was the greatest authority among the 
ancients on style. 

Tacitus (60 a.d.) was a great Roman historian. 

Celsus was a celebrated physician. 

Galen (130 a.d.), an Asiatic Greek by birth, practised medicine 
at Rome and has left many treatises on medicine. 

MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE. 

Latin continued to be the language of literature until about 
the middle of the Fourteenth Century. 

The Fathers of the Church were teachers who lived from the 
times of the Apostles until the Seventh Century, some of whom 

3 


34 SPARKS PROM THE ANVIL OP KNOWLEDGE. 


were Clement of Alexandria, Lactantius, Origen, Eusebius, Atha¬ 
nasius, Chrysostom, Tertullian, Augustine, Ambrose and Jerome. 

Arius, of the Fourth Century, taught that the Son is inferior to 
the Father. Arianism is opposed to the Trinity. 

The Sagas were Scandinavian historical poems about the 
Twelfth Century. 

Arabic learning extended from the Eighth to the Fourteenth 
Century. 

Hafiz, an eminent Persian poet, died 1388 a.d. 

“ The Arabian Nights’ Entertainments” were a collection of 
wild and oriental fictions, partly in India, Persia and Arabia, per¬ 
fected in Persia shortly after the reign of Caliph Haroun Al- 
Raschid, Eighth Century. They were first made known by M. 
Gallaud, 1704, but the best translation was executed by Dr. 
Edward Lane, published 1839. 

Paracelsus was a bold Swiss who repudiated Galen and old 
medical authorities. He helped break up antiquated notions 
and to improve the practice of medicine (killed 1541). 

In the Middle Ages there was no drama, nothing but mum¬ 
meries and miracle plays. 

Romances were stories about saints, knights, giants, etc. 

CONTINENTAL LITERATURE. 

Began in Italy in the Thirteenth Century, previous to the gen¬ 
eral revival of learning, and embraced the following: 

Dante, an eminent poet, born, Florence, 1265; Petrarch, 
lyrical poet, died 1374; Boccaccio, novelist, died 1375; Ma- 
cniAVELLi, statesman, 1527; Ariosto, poet, 1533; Guicciar¬ 
dini, historian, 1540; Tasso, epic poet, 1595; Galileo, famous 
for discoveries in physical sciences. He confirmed the Coperni- 
can system, and was imprisoned by the Inquisition on account of 
his advanced ideas. He died 1642. Torricelli, follower of 
Galileo, discovered the pressure of air and invented the barome¬ 
ter. Galvani, the discoverer of galvanism, died, 1642. 

SPANISH LITERATURE. 

The “ Cid ” was an old Spanish poem, written 1150. 

Cervantes was the greatest writer Spain ever produced; his 
principal work was Don Quixote. He was born 1547. 

Lope de Vega, 1635; Calderon, Quevedo and Camoens (a 
Portuguese poet) were all famous writers and dramatists. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 35 


FRENCH LITERATURE. 

French Literature commenced with the songs of the trouba¬ 
dours in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Among the most 
prominent writers we find: 

Froissart, the chronicler, died 1410; Rabelais, satirical and 
humorous w r riter, 1533; Jean Calvin, theologian, 1564; Mon¬ 
taigne, essayist, 1592; Sully, statesman and writer, 1641; 
Pascal, religious writer, 1622; De Sevigne (Madame) epistola- 
tory writer, 1696; Corneille, the great dramatist, 1684; Moli£re, 
the great comedian, 1673; Racine, scriptural dramatist, 1697; 
La Fontaine, poet and fabulist, 1695 ;Boileau, satirical poet, 1711; 
Bossuet, Bourdaloue, and Massillon, famous pulpit orators of the 
Eighteenth Century; La Bruyere, writer on character and man¬ 
ners, died 1696; Bayle, wit, logic, learning and skepticism, 1706; 
Vauban, fortifications, 1707; Fenelon, author of Telemaque, 1714; 
Rollin, historian, 1741; Le Sage, novelist and author of “Gil 
Bias,” 1747; Voltaire, poet, dramatist, historian, etc., 1778; Buf- 
fon, naturalist, latter part of Eighteenth Century; Laplace, as¬ 
tronomer, 1827; Jussieu, botanist, 1836; Chateaubriand, political 
writer, 1848; Beranger, poet, 1857; Michelet, historian, 1874; Lam- 
ennais, politico-religious writer, 1854; Guizot, historian, 1874; 
Thiers, De Tocqueville, Lamartine, D’Aubigne, Comte, 
were writers and poets of the Nineteenth Century. 

GERMAN LITERATURE. 

German Literature begins in the Eighteenth Century with 
Goethe, Klopstock and Schiller. 

Although this literature is of recent origin, there have been 
many writers whose works form a staple trade at Leipsic. 

Copernicus, the great mathematician and astronomer, died 
1543. Tycho Brahe, a Dane, who succeeded Copernicus as an as¬ 
tronomical discoverer, added greatly to the general knowledge of 
the planets and stars (1601). Kepler, famous for his discovery 
of certain laws of light and planetary motion, died 1630. Puf- 
fendorf (1694) was famous for his celebrated work, “The laws 
of nature and nations,” which work remains an authority on the 
subject. Linnaeus, a Swede, was a famous botanist (1778). 
Lavater, a Swiss, was the author of a great work on physiog¬ 
nomy, 1801. Kant (1804), the transcendentalist (that which goes 
beyond the limit of experience). 

Goethe, poet, dramatist, and greatest of German writers, died 
1832. 

ScniLLER, poet and dramatist, died 1805. 

Kotzebue, a famous dramatist, was assassinated 1819. 



36 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Humboldt (Karl), famed for philological treatises, died 1835. 

Humboldt (Alexander), one of the greatest of naturalists and 
geographers, died 1859. 

Gall, the founder of phrenology, died 1832. 

Liebig, the famous chemist, died 1873. 

German literature of the present day is less occupied with phil¬ 
osophical systems and metaphysics than formerly. 

Dutch literature is not of ancient date, and is but little 
known beyond the Netherlands. 

Karamsin was the most eminent prose writer of Russia. 

Pushkin was the most distinguished poet. He was sometimes 
called the Russian Byron. 

ENGLISH LITERATURE. 

Begins with Chaucer, who died about 1400. 

Some early Scottish writers wrote in Latin, others in the Scot¬ 
tish vernacular of the period. 

In the reign of Elizabeth English literature became more 
national and acquired vigor and elegance. Poetry and the 
drama rose to a high degree of excellence. 

Beaumont and Fletcher, in the Sixteenth Century, wrote 
fifty-two plays, which still keep their place in English literature. 

The works of Shakespeare were published seven years after 
his death. They were not thoroughly appreciated during his 
life. He was born in 1564 and died 1616. 

Sidney, Hooker and Bacon were the most distinguishedJprose 
writers of this era. 

The English poets from 1649 to 1689 include Milton, Bdtler 
and Dryden. 

The prose writers were Edward Hyde, Izaak Walton, Eve¬ 
lyn, Locke, Pepys, Baxter, Bunyan, Temple, Hale, Boyle, 
Isaac Newton and others. 

From 1689 to 1727 the following writers appeared: Daniel 
Defoe, Steele, Addison, Prior, Swift, Pope, St. John, 
Parnell, Gay, Lady Montagu, Cooper, Berkeley. 

From 1727 to 1760 Thomson, Mallet, Hume and Smollett 
(of Scottish birth), Collins, Watts, Bruce, Johnson, Gray, 
Fielding, Foote and Richardson. 

From 1760 to 1800 the most noted writers were Goldsmith, 
Boswell, Falconer, Beattie, Smart, Wolcott, Baillie (Jo¬ 
anna), Sheridan, Coleman, Sterne, Walpole, Gibbon, Hal¬ 
ley, Blair, Wilberforce, Burke, Adam Smith, Hannah 
More, Mungo Park, Cowper and Burns. 

1801 to 1865 we find Bentham, Rogers, Wordsworth, 
Coleridge, Southey, Lamb, Thomas Moore, Campbell, 
Scott, Byron, Sydney Smith and Shelley. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 3? 


The great novelists of our times include Thackeray, Doug¬ 
las Jerrold, Dickens and Bulwer. The historians, Macau¬ 
lay, Froude, Grote and Alison. 

Some of the distinguished scientific writers of this century 
were Davy, Dalton, Lyell, Murchison, Brewster, Hugh 
Miller, Owen and Herschel. 

Among the miscellaneous writers are De Quincey, McCul¬ 
loch, Chalmers, Carlyle, and Mill. 

Some of the earlier American writers and statesmen were 
Franklin, Edwards and Dwigut. Among the more recent are 
Bancroft, Irving, Prescott, Emerson, Motley, Lowell, 
Noah Webster, Hawthorne and Cooper. 

Among the familiar poets of the present age are Tennyson, 
Longfellow, Bryant, Whittier, Willis, Halleck, Edgar 
A. Poe, Stedman, Holmes, Carleton, Miller, Sims, Saxe, etc. 

MYTHOLOGY. 

The study of this science when conducted in proper methods 
throws great light on some of the early thoughts of mankind. 
Nobody knows by whom, or at what time, or under what cir¬ 
cumstances, it was originated. 

Originally the Myths, of which Mythology is composed, were 
told to be believed, and to disbelieve them was to be an infidel, a 
heretic and blasphemer. 

We give some of the characters, culled from Greek and Roman 
history: 

Andromeda was one of the dawn myths, married to the sun 
hero, Perseus. 

Aphrodite, or Venus, another of the dawn myths, was the 
goddess of beauty and love. 

Apollo, son of Jupiter and Latona, was one of the sun myths. 
He was the god of archery, music and song. 

Argus, the all-seeing, was a monster with a hundred eyes, of 
which two only were asleep at a time. Jupiter slew him, and 
Juno took the eyes and put them on the tail of the peacock. 

Artemis, or Diana, sister of Apollo, personified the goddess of 
the chase. 

Atlanta represents the dawn. 

Athene, or Minerva, was the goddess of wisdom. 

Bacchus was the god of the vine. 

Boreas, god of the winds, symbolizes confusion. 

Castor and Pollux represent dawn and twilight. 

Centaurs. The Centaurs were a savage race, with the upper 
part of their bodies that of a man and the lower part that of a 
horse. They symbolize cloud masses, the heads lit up by the sun 
and the rest in shade. 


38 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Cerberus was the three-headed dog that guarded the lower 
regions. 

Chaos was the husband of Gaia, the earth. 

Chimera, the Greek word for a she-goat, belongs to the myths 
of darkness. 

Circe, daughter of the sun, was a moon myth. She is the 
goddess of sorcery. 

Cronus, Kronos, or Saturn, was the god of time, son of 
heaven and earth, and father of Jupiter. 

Cupid, or Eros, was the god of love and son of Venus. He 
married Psyche. 

Ceres was the goddess of corn and agriculture. 

Deucalion, son of Prometheus, was saved with his wife Pyr- 
rba from the nine days’ deluge (which destroyed all the other in¬ 
habitants of the earth), by shutting himself up in a chest and 
floating upon the waters, finally resting upon Mt. Caucasus. 

Endymion was a sun myth, beloved by Diana. The name 
signifies the sun as he dips in the sea. 

Europa was the sister of the sun. Jupiter, in the form of a 
bull, carried her away. 

Fates. The Fates are three sisters, dreadful and inexorable, 
whose power transcends that of Jupiter himself. 

Hesperides. The garden of the Hesperides was an enchanted 
place. The myths of this enchanted land symbolize the beauties 
of the western clouds and sky at sunset. 

Graces. The Graces were three beautiful goddesses, repre¬ 
senting Grace, Favor and Gentleness. Their names were Aglaia, 
Thalia and Euphrosyne. 

Harpies. The Harpies were hideous creatures, with the 
bodies of maidens and the feet and wings of ravens. 

Hebe was the goddess of youth. She was married to Hercules. 

Helena was daughter of Sky and Night. 

Helios was the sun god. 

Hera, or JItno, was wife of Jupiter. 

Hercules, son of Zeus and Alcmene, a mortal of god-like char¬ 
acter, represented human perfection. His labors were twelve in 
number. 1st. He killed a furious lion by tearing its jaws apart 
with his hands. 2d. He killed the Lernsean Hydra, a frightful 
serpent with a number of heads. 3d. He caught the swift-footed 
stag of Artemis. 4th. He caught alive an enormous wild boar. 
5th. He cleaned, in one day, the Augean stables, in which 3000 
oxen had stood for fifty years. 6th. He killed certain foul birds 
that fed on human flesh. 7th. He captured the Cretan bull. 8th. 
He killed Diomcdes, and carried away his man-eating mares. 9th. 
He brought to his daughter Admete the girdle of the Queen of 
the Amazons. 10th. He captured the oxen of the giant Geryones. 
11th. He fetched the golden apples from the garden of the Hes- 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 39 


perides. 12th. He dragged the ferocious dog Cerberus, which had 
three heads, from the portals of hell. 

Hermes, or Mercury, was the messenger of the gods. 

Hephaestus, or Vulcan, was the god of fire and forger of 
thunderbolts. 

Hylas, the most beautiful boy in Greece, was dragged down 
into a forest pool by the Nymphs, and never seen again. 

Ino is the open and glaring day. 

Io, daughter of a king of Argos. She was beloved by Jupiter, 
and changed by him into a white cow, etc. 

Jason was the nephew of Pelias, King of Iolcus, by whom he 
was sent to fetch the golden fleece. 

Leda, or Leto, married Jupiter and became the mother of 
Apollo and Artemis. 

Medusa, a myth of darkness, was destroyed by Perseus. 

Minos, King of Crete, was father of Ariadne. 

Minotaur was a monster, half man, half bull, who lived in 
the labyrinth of Crete. 

Muses. The muses, daughters of Jupiter, were the divine in¬ 
spires of song. They were nine in number. Calliope, the epic 
muse; Clio, the muse of history; Euterpe, of lyric verses; Melpom¬ 
ene, of tragedy; Terpsichore, of dance and song; Erato, of am¬ 
atory verses; Polyhymnia, of the hymn; Urania, of astronomy; 
Thalia, of comedy and the idyll. 

Mars was the god of war. 

Nereus was the sea god. 

Niobe was the daughter of Tantalus. Boasting of her superi¬ 
ority to Leda, she was punished by having all her children taken 
away from her at once. 

Oceanus was the great stream of the Greeks that flowed 
around the world. 

Orpheus was the son of Apollo, and celebrated for his musical 
powers. 

Olympus, Mt., was the abode of the gods. 

Ossa, Mt. The giants tried to set this mountain on the top of 
Mt. Pelion, and so climb up to Olympus. 

Oracle was a temple of Apollo at Delphi, where the god 
vouchsafed prophetic answers. 

Pandora was fashioned by Vulcan out of clay and endowed 
with gifts by all the gods. A box was given her filled with bless¬ 
ings, and her curiosity prompting her to open it, all flew out ex¬ 
cept hope. 

Pegasus was a beautiful winged horse. 

Persephone, daughter of Ceres, was carried off by Pluto, to 
be queen of the lower world. 

Perseus was a son of Jupiter. 


40 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Piiaetiion, or Piiaeton, son of the sun-god, was destroyed by 
Jupiter with a thunderbolt. 

Pieedra was daughter of Minos, King of Crete. 

Pluto was son of Cronus and king of the lower world. 

Poseidon, or Neptune, was son of Chronos. The sea is made 
subject to him. 

Prometheus (one of the Titans) stole fire from heaven, and 
for punishment was chained to Mt. Caucasus, where an eagle 
preyed upon his liver. Pie was delivered by Hercules. He 
warned his son Deucalion of the flood. 

Psyche was a beautiful goddess married to Cupid. Her name 
is the Greek word for soul. 

Pyrrha was wife of Deucalion. The Eve of the Greeks. 

RnEA was wife of Chronos. The great Earth Mother. 

Silenus was the god of humor. 

Sirens were treacherous sea nymphs. 

SpniNx was a monster with the head of a woman and the body 
of a lioness. 

Styx was a river of the lower world. 

Tantalus, father of Niobe, was condemned to unending pun¬ 
ishment in the lower world. 

Tartarus was a dark pit below the earth. 

Titans were children of Uranus and Gaia. 

Tripod was a three-legged stool on which the Priestess of 
Apollo sat. 

Uranus was god of the sky. 

Vesta was the goddess of home. 

Zeus, or Jupiter, was son of Chronos and Rhea. 

Pygmalion was a statuary who carved a beautiful female 
statue in ivory, which, when Venus endowed it with life, he 
married. 


ASTRONOMY. 

Astronomy treats of the motions and natures of the heavenly 
bodies. It is in all probability the most ancient, as it is unques¬ 
tionably the noblest, of the physical sciences. 

It can scarcely be disputed that the Chinese have the oldest 
authentic observations on record, which they assert go back 2857 
years b.c. 

The Chaldeans seem to have been the first to make really reli¬ 
able observations. 

The astronomy of Greece begins With Thales (640 b.c.). He 
taught the Greeks the use of the constellation of the Little Bear 
in navigation. 

Pythagoras (500 b.c.), the next astronomer of eminence, 
was far before his age. He promulgated the true doctrine of the 


SPARKS PROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 41 


motion of the earth round the sun, and showed that the morning 
and evening stars were one and the same planet. 

The ancients believed that the sun, planets and stars revolved 
around the earth. It is now known that the sun is a central body 
around which the earth and other planets revolve. 

The principal planets are eight in number, namely: Mercury, 
Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. 
In all there are more than one hundred. 

The planets are supposed to be worlds deriving heat and light 
from the sun. They differ in size, Jupiter being the largest. 

The stars are suns, at an inconceivable distance from the 
earth, and the planets are believed to revolve around them. 

Planets do not twinkle like stars, but shine steadily. 

Sometimes planets like Jupiter and Venus are spoken of as 
morning and evening stars. 

The color of Venus is a pure sparkling white. 

Mercury, a dullish blue. 

Saturn, a reddish tinge. 

Mars, a fiery red; and Jupiter, white. 

The blaze of the sunlight prevents our seeing the stars during 
the daytime. Among the noted constellations are Orion, the 
Great Bear and the Southern Cross. The latter is not seen in 
northern latitudes. 

The North Star is situated nearly due north, in a line with two 
stars called the pointers. 

The Galaxy, or Milky Way, is a broad white streak seen in the 
sky at night. 

The solar system includes, besides the planets, comets and sat¬ 
ellites. There are many comets, and they travel in all directions, 
approaching the sun and receding from it. 

Satellites are sometimes called secondary planets. The moon 
is the earth’s satellite, and is about one fourth the diameter of the 
earth, while the sun is one million four hundred thousand times 
greater than the earth. 

The earth turning round deceives our senses and causes us to 
think the sun rises. 

The sun is always shining on some part of the earth. 

The term pole is a Greek word signifying pivot or turning 
point. 

The moon is believed to consist of rocks and other opaque ma¬ 
terials, and is not inhabited. It gives a reflected light from the 
sun shining upon it. 

Astrologers were persons who pretended to tell fortunes by the 
stars. 


42 SPARKS FROM THE ANV'IL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


GEOGRAPHY. 

The word geography literally means a description of the earth. 
The science is commonly divided into three departments, astro¬ 
nomical, physical and political. 

Among the earliest records of geography are the five books of 
Moses (Pentateuch) and the Book of Joshua, which contain fre¬ 
quent and singularly correct reference to contemporary Egypt 
and Arabia. 

In 5G8 b.c. Anaximander of Miletus is supposed to have in¬ 
vented geographical maps. 

The world of Herodotus (484 b.c.), the father not only of 
history but of geography, extends from the Red Sea or Indian 
Ocean to the Amber lands of the Baltic, and from the Atlantic to 
the west boundary of Persia. 

Eratosthenes (276 b.c.) invented the parallels of latitude and 
longitude. 

Geography made vast strides under the Romans, who carefully 
took account of the material resources of every conquered coun¬ 
try. 

In the Historia Naturalis of Pliny mention is made of the 
Scandinavian lands and of the Arctic regions, of settlements in 
various parts of Africa, of the course of the Niger, of the island 
of Ceylon, etc. 

The geography of Ptolemy embodied the latest contributions 
to the study of geography in ancient times, and remained the 
acknowledged canon during the middle ages. 

In the Eighth Century the Arabs eagerly seized upon the study 
of geography, and towards the end of the middle ages a great ac¬ 
cession of knowledge resulted from the travels of the Venetians, 
Genoese and Portuguese. 

The works of Carpini, Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville 
first gave information regarding Central and Eastern Asia. Then 
followed the discovery of America in 1492, and the doubling of 
the Cape of Good Hope, by Vasco da Gama, in 1497. 

In the Sixteenth Century took place the remarkable arctic 
expeditions of Willoughby, Frobisher and Davis. The discov¬ 
eries by Tasman and Van Diemen, in Australasia, were greatly 
extended by those of Cook in the Eighteenth Century. 

The Nineteenth Century witnessed the discovery of the ant¬ 
arctic continent in 1840; the opening up of the African interior by 
the explorations of Burton, Speke, Livingstone, Stanley, etc.; 
the investigation of Central Australia; the survey of Central Asia 
by the Russian Government, and the arctic explorations of the 
English and American governments. To the latter belongs the 
honor of having reached the farthest northern point. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 43 


Modern geography teaches us that: 

The earth’s surface is about 200,000,000 of square miles in ex¬ 
tent, two thirds of which is occupied by water. 

The land consists of continents and islands; the water consists 
of oceans, seas, lakes and rivers. 

The oceans, seas and bays are constantly agitated by tides, 
which flow and ebb twice in about twenty-jive hours. 

The combined action of the sun and moon, but more particu¬ 
larly the moon, causes the tides. 

When it is high water on one side of the globe it is high water 
at the place exactly opposite it on the other side. The Mediterra¬ 
nean is noted for having very little tide, in consequence of its 
narrow inlet from the ocean. 

The population of the earth is reckoned to be about a thousand 
million of people. 

GEOLOGY. 

Geology treats of the structure, surface, configuration and 
composition of the earth. 

By geology we learn much of the past history of the globe, 
besides the knowledge of materials that are useful in the arts. 

The remains of plants and animals are found in some stratified 
rocks. They became incorporated there while the rocks were 
forming by the settlement of loose materials in water. Many of 
them retain their original forms, but have all been changed into 
stone. 

Paleontology is a branch of geology which treats on this 
subject. 

The Globe has undergone many convulsions, submerging some 
layers of rock, bringing others toward the surface, thus showing 
how animal remains become buried below the surface of the 
earth. 

Air and running water are constantly wearing down and 
carrying away parts of solid rocks. 

Glaciers and icebergs have also denuded the surface, and 
this, with the eruption of igneous rocks, has caused mountains 
to exist. 

Sea-sand, like clay and various kinds of earth, is formed by 
the disintegrated materials of certain rocks. 

Mineral is the general name for the earth’s crust, such as 
clay, sand, limestone and other rocks, flint, blacklead, salt, coal, 
and the like. 

Ores are minerals from which metal can be extracted by roast¬ 
ing the ore with fire. 

Tile principal metals are gold, silver, iron, lead, zinc, cop¬ 
per, tin, nickel, antimony, etc. 

Coal is composed chiefly of vegetable matter, compressed into 


44 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


a compact mass, caused by the submergence of land in one of the 
convulsions which have caused the sea to rush in and cover the 
land. 

Coal consists usually of forests of trees and ferns, upon the 
quality of which the richness of the coal depends. In digging 
for coal and other fossils, it becomes the more hot the lower we 
descend into the earth, thus creating the belief that the centre of 
the globe is in a state of very great heat. This heat is manifested 
on the surface by volcanoes and hot mineral springs. 

Coal deteriorates rapidly from exposure to the weather. Accord 
ing to scientific experiments, coal exposed to the weather in 
heaps, during a period of nine months, loses fifty per cent of its 
value as fuel. It undergoes a process of slow combustion, taking 
up oxygen and giving off the volatile products of oxidation, air 
and moisture playing the principal part, and warmth promoting it; 
the valuable combustible ingredients are lost, and the injurious 
ones, as sulphur, oxygen and ash, are relatively increased. 
Neither wood nor coal can bear long exposure to the elements 
without losing a large share of their value for fuel. 

Volcanoes are most numerous in South America. They some¬ 
times break out in the bed of the ocean and throw up materials 
which form volcanic islands. 

The origin of the term volcano is from Vulcan, a fabulous deity 
who was supposed by the ancients to reside under Mt. Etna, en¬ 
gaged in forging thunderbolts for Jupiter. 

Petroleum is a natural oil which gushes and springs from the 
earth. These oil-springs are found in Burmah, in other parts of 
Asia, Russia, and North America. 

The oil thus formed in the earth is believed to be a result of 
the earth’s internal heat acting on beds of a rich kind of coal. 
Petroleum has been made from petroleum coal. 

Earthquakes are supposed to be caused by volcanic action. 

The ancients were acquainted with geology and mineralogy 
only in a limited way, the science being of comparatively modern 
origin. 


CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 

Chemistry is the science of atoms. It came into use early in 
the Fourth Century, but it was not until the close of the Seven¬ 
teenth Century that chemistry proper had any existence. 

The first hook on chemistry was written by Libavius, 1595. 

The object of chemistry is the investigation of matter with a 
view to the determination of its composition and properties; and 
while it holds such an important and prominent position among 
the useful and exact sciences, and has done so much for the good 
of mankind and for the advancement of science generally, it had 


SPARKS PROM THE ANVIL OP KNOWLEDGE. 45 


for its origin the purely selfish desire for wealth. The alchemists 
were the fathers of the science. 

The ancients spoke of fire , air, earth and water as the four ele¬ 
ments. We have learned that fire is only an extreme condition 
of heat, and that air, earth and water are mixtures of several ele¬ 
ments. 

Chemistry has made known about sixty-four elementary or 
simple substances. All the objects we see around us are com¬ 
posed of some of these elements. 

The discoveries by chemical analysis have extended a knowledge 
of nature, made known many useful medicines, also coloring mat¬ 
ters, etc. 

Soap and coal-gas are among the benefits derived from the 
knowledge of chemistry. Sand or flint and some alkaline sub¬ 
stances are used for making glass. 

Glass-making is very ancient, but much improved by the 
moderns. 

Oxygen is the vital principle of the air. Fire will go out if 
deprived of oxygen; hence in blowing a fire it is the rush of oxy¬ 
gen which is the true cause of the blaze. 

The common air is deteriorated by breathing, and what we ex¬ 
hale has lost its oxygen. 

Carbonic-acid gas supports vegetation, but a very small 
quantity is injurious to animal life. 

A close room where several persons are sleeping is a common 
cause of fevers and other illness. 

The opinion that the development of fire by friction was a re¬ 
sult of latent heat is now abandoned, and it is now supposed to 
be caused by the violent arresting or retardation of motion. 

Black garments more readily absorb heat than those which are 
white. 

Metals are good conductors of heat, while wood is a bad con¬ 
ductor. 

Woollen garments do not impart warmth to the body, but keep 
the animal warmth from leaving us. 

Water is most dense at 40 degrees. 

Heat applied to water expands it. 

Dew is a condensation of atmospheric moisture on blades of 
grass during the night. 

Hoar-frost is dew frozen by the cold. 

Fogs are caused by a sudden condensation of the atmosphere. 

Frost is of great use in destroying insects and other vermin, 
also in mouldering down the hard clods of earth. 

Snow shelters tender vegetation from the severity of frost. 

Ice contains more or less heat. 

Glaciers are huge masses of ice and snow which slide down 
from lofty situations. 


46 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Clouds float in the atmosphere from a few hundred feet to 
six miles above the earth. 

The atmosphere wraps the whole earth to the height of about 
forty-five miles, and is more dense at the lowest level. 

At the height of seven miles it is too thin to be breathed. 

The tops of high mountains are perpetually covered with snow 
because the air is so thin that it cannot retain the heat. 

To compress air requires a great deal of force, and it has a 
tendency to rend any vessel in which it is forcibly confined. 

Water boils at the level of the sea at 212° Fahrenheit; on the 
top of Mt. Blanco at 189 degrees. 

Air conveys sound at the rate of 1125 feet per second. 

Sound travels best along the surface of the water; also along a 
tube. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

This science includes the laws of matter, motion, meteorology, 
pneumatics, optics, acoustics, hydrostatics, etc. 

Matter may be defined as that which fills space, and by mat¬ 
ter is meant all that we can recognize by the senses, such as the 
earth, air, water, animals, and vegetables, the sun and other 
heavenly bodies. 

Organic matter means all things that have life. All other 
things are inorganic. 

Matter is indestructible ; it is destroyed only as regards its form, 
assuming new shapes. 

Weight is only a result of attraction. An article at the level 
of the sea weighs less at the top of a mountain. 

Small bodies of matter are believed to be floating in space or 
circling around the sun. These bodies are called aerolites, and 
frequently fall to the earth when the latter comes near enough to 
attract them. 

Aerolites appear luminous as they become heated, from the 
rapidity with which they rush through the atmosphere. 

The attraction to the earth is weakest near the equator, and 
strongest near the poles. Pendulums are generally lengthened in 
advancing towards the poles. 

Water will rise to the level of the fountain from which it 
flows, and no higher 

The specific gravity of a body is its weight compared with 
that of water. A ship floats as high in a small dock as in the 
ocean. * 

Wetting is the adhesion of the liquid to the solid body. 

Capillary attraction is a particular effect of adhesion. Oil 
creeps up a wick. Water will creep up a lump of sugar. Water 
will creep up the foundations of a house, and water in a cup will 
rise a little way all around, as if anxious to cling to the vessel. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 47 


Inertia is a tendency of bodies to remain in the condition in 
which they are placed, whether at rest or in motion. All persons 
in a moving carriage participate in the motion, exemplified when 
they attempt to leap from the carriage. 

A body falling from a great height receives a fresh impulse 
from gravitation, and the descent becomes quicker as it falls. 

The lexer and inclined plane are the elementary mechanical 
powers. 

The lever does not create power, it modifies it. The power is 
gained by the sacrifice of speed. 

The wedge and screw are familiar examples of the inclined plane. 
The wheel and axle is a variety of the lever. 

Machinery simplifies labor. The spade is a simple instrument, 
without which or some other implement we should have to dig 
with the bauds. 

Mechanical combinations of substances do not change the proper¬ 
ties of the substances, while in chemical combinations the mixed 
substances undergo a thorough change of character. 


ELECTRICITY. 

What is electricity? is a question which has existed from the 
earliest historic times; which has occupied the attention of every 
electrician, and which yet remains unanswered. The phenome¬ 
non obtained its name from the substance by which it was first 
observed, electron, or amber; but it is now recognized that every 
kind of matter is similarly affected; that friction is always at¬ 
tended with the production of electricity. 

In a valuable treatise on the magnet, published by Dr. Gilbert 
in 1600, w r e have the first step towards a philosophical combina¬ 
tion and generalization of the phenomenon, as then known, but 
it was not until the present century that general inquiry has been 
directed to the subject of electricity. 

In 1752 Benjamin Franklin filled a Leyden jar from the clouds, 
thus proving the identity of lightning and electricity. 

In 1820, (Ersted, by his discovery of the action of a current 
upon a magnet, laid the foundation of electro-magnetism. 

Ohm and Faraday have done much to unite electric phenomena 
in one grand whole, while their discoveries more than ever tend 
to raise the question, What is the real nature of electricity? 

Among the best elementary treatises of electricity in the Eng¬ 
lish language are Fleming Jenkins’ Electricity and Magnetism 
(1876), and "Guthrie’s Magnetism and Electricity (1876). 

It has been found that electricity, like heat, pervades all mate¬ 
rial things, and that its velocity, as shown by Wheatstone, is 
288,000 miles per second. 


48 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


All metals are good conductors of electricity. Glass, wax, silk, 
wool, feathers, and dry air are bad conductors. 

In the best electrical lamps the little horseshoe is now made of 
bamboo (Japanese), and this material has proved its superiority 
to its rival, paper, in many ways. 

A well-made lamp is expected to burn 600 hours. 

Platinum is the only metal which expands and contracts with 
heat at the same rate as glass. This keeps the joint, where the 
wires pass through the glass, always tight, so that no air can enter 
—a perfect vacuum being necessary. 

Lightning is flashes of electricity from overcharged clouds. 

Thunder is explosions of electricity in the atmosphere. 

The aurora borealis consists of light streaks of electricity. 

Galvinism is electricity developed by the action of certain chem¬ 
ical agents on plates of different metals, usually zinc and copper. 

Electricity is successfully employed to work a twenty-two inch 
gun in a foundry at Castellamare, Italy. 

BOTANY. 

Botany is the science which treats of the vegetable kingdom in 
all its phases. 

The early botanists knew so few plants that any elaborate sys¬ 
tem of classification was unnecessary. For instance, Hippocrates, 
the father of medical science (400 or 500 b.c.), mentions only 234; 
Pliny (a.d. 79), 800; no greater number was known in the middle 
of the Sixteenth Century. Linnaeus at his death was not ac¬ 
quainted with more than 8551 species, of which 7728 were flower¬ 
ing plants. 

At the present day, though the flora of Thibet, China, Corea, 
Africa, and other parts of the world are imperfectly explored, 
botanists have described 100,000 flowering plants, and 25,000 of 
other kinds. 

Plants exist or live without consciousness. 

The greater number of plants require sunlight. 

The leaves of plants absorb a certain amount of carbonic acid 
gas, a gas highly injurious to animal life. 

Plants in daylight give off oxygen and moisture, maintaining 
the salubrity of the atmosphere. 

Seeds begin by swelling; then a part of the seed called the eye 
sends forth a double shoot, one part forming the root the other 
the stem. 

Some seeds retain their vitality for thousands of years, but 
most seeds, if exposed to the air, lose their vitality after a few 
years. 

Seeds are diffused by nature—by being carried by birds, and in 
various other ways. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 49 


Linnaeus, a Swede, and Jussieu, a Frenchman, have classified 
plants into families. 

Annual plants are those which grow for a season and then 
perish. 

Biennials, two years, and perennials a number of years. 

Orchids are a particular order of perennials which grow in 
tropical countries, and are introduced into hot houses, where they 
are suspended in moss or in blocks of wood. 

Evergreens shed their oldest leaves in the spring and new 
ones are formed in fresh shoots. 

Deciduous trees are those which shed their leaves on the ap¬ 
proach of winter. 

Exogenous trees are those which increase in hulk by concen¬ 
tric rings beneath the bark; the age of which trees can be de¬ 
termined by the number of concentric rings. The oak, ash, elm, 
larch, and others are examples. 

Endogenous trees are those which increase in bulk by growth 
in the centre and upward, of which the palm is an example. 

Exotics are plants which have been introduced from foreign 
countries. 

Indigenous plants are those which grow naturally in the coun¬ 
try. 

ZOOLOGY. 

Zoology is the science which treats of the animal kingdom. 

Tiie Animal Creation includes all living creatures, from 
the most minute to the most highly organized; at the head is man. 

No animal is insignificant, although many are troublesome; 
each is seen, when closely examined, to be an essential part of the 
plan of creation. 

The Lower Animals include all, except man. 

In Cold Countries the number of animals is limited, while 
in tropical regions the reverse is the case. 

The classification of animals by Cuvier, a French naturalist, 
is the arrangement now adopted. 

Species of Animals is a term applied where there is a uni¬ 
formity maintained through successive generations. 

Gregarious Animals are those which live in flocks and herds. 

Oviparous Animals are those produced from eggs. 

Viviparous are those produced in a living state. 

Ovoviparous Animals are those within which the eggs are 
hatched before the young are produced; the common lizard is an 
example. 

Digitigrade Quadrupeds are those which walk on their toes, 
as the dog or cat. 

Plantagrade Quadrupeds are those which walk on the sole 
of the foot, as the bear. 

4 


50 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Hibernating Animals are those which pass the winter in a 
dormant state, as the bat. 

Amphibious Animals are those which can live either in water 
or on land, such as the frog. 

Parasitic Animals are those which habitually live within or 
upon other animals. 

In Animal as in Vegetable life, there is not, as was once sup¬ 
posed, spontaneous production. 

Conditions have a powerful effect on animal life, for example 
souring beer aids the principles of reproduction. Without the 
conditions, the germ of the animal would remain dormant. 

Zoophytes are named from their resemblance to growing 
plants, and which seem to form a connecting link between animal 
and vegetable life. 

Sponge is the frame work of the zoophytes, cleared of the liv¬ 
ing matter. 

The Eyes of Insects are usually much projected, and con¬ 
sist of a vast number of distinct lenses which enable them to see 
on all sides. 

34,000 lenses, each possessing the power of an eye, have been 
counted in the eye of a butterfly. 

Mammalia, or Suck-giving Animals, are the highest kind of 
animals. Dolphins, Porpoises, Whales and Seals are marine 
mammalia. 

The order Kuminantia includes the stag, camel, antelope, goat, 
sheep, cow, giraffe, and buffalo; all live on grass. 

The elephant, rhinoceros, tapir, hog, horse, and ass compose 
the order of Pachydermata, implying animals with thick skin, 
such as very ferocious wild animals. 

The monkey, orang-outang, chimpanzee, and gorilla, animals 
approaching in figure to man, compose the order of Quadrumana, 
or four-handed. 

Man is assigned to the order bimana, or two-handed, in 
which class he stands alone. 

ETHNOLOGY. 

Ethnology treats of the varieties or different races of men, 
their manners and characters. 

There are usually said to be five varieties in the race of man, 
the Caucasian, Mongolian, Malayan, American Indian, 
and the Negro. 

The Caucasian variety is nearly white, and is the most improv¬ 
able of all the races. The latter are supposed to have orginated in 
and spread out from Caucasus in Asia. 

The Mongolians are so called from the Mongols, a people of 
Central Asia. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 51 


The Malayans are called from the peninsula of Malaya, in 
India. 

To a certain extent, the color of the skin is an effect of circum¬ 
stance, exposure to the sun in hot climates tending to darken the 
complexion; but the color in the negro race, from whatever cause, 
is not on the surface of the skin, but seems a part of the natural 
complexion. 

POTTERY—CERAMICS. 

Under these terms, which are embraced in the single name 
“Ceramics,” are included all manufactures of baked clay, from 
the earliest bricks and tiles to the most artistic products of the 
potter’s art. 

The potter’s art and its products possess supreme historical in¬ 
terest, while in industrial utility, pottery is second to no other 
product of human labor. 

The art of making pottery was certainly among the earliest 
developments of human industry. 

Rude vessels of pottery belonging to the stone age of pre¬ 
historic times—before the use of any metal Tvas understood—are 
not uncommon, and it is quite probable that the art was practised 
at a time when the mammoth was the inhabitant of Central 
Europe. 

Sun-dried Pottery was probably long in use before the art 
of kiln-baking the moulded clay was discovered. 

The introduction of the potter's wheel marked an important era 
in the progress of the art. It is impossible to determine by whom 
this notable implement was first used; but it was in use among 
the Egyptians not less than 2500 years before the Christian era. 

Latest of all the great improvements came the art of glazing 
and enamelling, or covering the porous body with a glassy coat¬ 
ing of either a transparent or an opaque character. 

The stages in this important advance are thus epitomized: The 
invention of glass or enamels, as old as the 18th dynasty, and 
enamelled objects as early as the 4th have been found in Egypt. 

The employment of copper, to produce a brilliant blue-colored 
enamel, was very early used, both in Babylonia and Assyria; but 
the use of Tin for a white enamel anticipated by many centuries 
the rediscovery of that process in Europe in the Fifteenth Century. 

This invention apparently remained for many centuries a secret 
among the Eastern nations only, enamelled terra-cotta and glass 
forming articles of commercial export from Egypt and Phoenicia 
to every part of the Mediterranean. 

After the fall of the Roman Empire the art of enamelling 
terra-cotta disappeared among the Arab and Moorish races. 

Innumerable fragments of glazed vases, fabricated by the 
Greeks and Romans, not only prove the early use of glazing, but 


52 SPARKS PROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


also exhibit in the present day many of the noblest efforts of the 
potter’s art. 

The earliest appearances of ornamentation on pottery consists 
merely of rude thumb marks and nail scratchings. 

Artistic form in the higher sense is first found in the beautiful 
vases of the ancient Greeks, popularly know as Etruscan. 

1'lie art of making porcelain is undoubtedly a Chinese invention. 

According to oriental records, porcelain was first made in China 
about the beginning of the Christian era, and for seventeen cen¬ 
turies porcelain continued to be an exclusively oriental product. 

For a period of about one thousand years, corresponding to the 
so-called dark ages, the artistic manufacture of pottery was 
practically extinct in Europe. 

Early in the Fourteenth Century Italian pottery,now well known 
as majolica, from having been originally made in the Island of 
Majorca, began to be manufactured. In the Sixteenth Century a 
peculiar variety of stone ware, or dense pottery, was made in Ger¬ 
many. In the same century the enamelled fayences of the famous 
Bernard Pelissy were produced in France. The true oriental 
porcelain, however, was not discovered till about 1715. Strenu¬ 
ous efforts were made to keep this discovery of Bottgers secret, 
but it soon spread. In Vienna the manufacture was begun in 
1720, Berlin in 1751, and at Sevres in 1759. 

In Great Britain the first potter who deserves mention, on ac¬ 
count of the artistic excellence of his productions, is Josiah 
Wedgewood, born 1730. In his hands, British pottery attained 
an elegance of form, perfection of material, and beauty of orna¬ 
mentation which neither before nor since have been rivalled. 

The Wedgewood works are still continued at Etruria, Stafford¬ 
shire, by the descendants of Josiah Wedgewood. Chinese por¬ 
celain of the Kang-lie period, 1661-1672, with the ring mark is very 
highly prized. A vase of that period eight inches in height, offered 
at the “ Morgan Sale” in N. Y. City, March, 1886, was purchased 
by Mr. Walters, from Baltimore, for the reported sum of $18,000. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Architecture ranks as one of the fine arts, and has been fitly 
described as the art of ornamental and ornamented construction. 

The Architect, besides understanding the nature and proper¬ 
ties of materials, must understand the principles of design. 

Architecture, like sculpture, is of very ancient date, and con¬ 
sists of various kinds, such as civil, military, and ecclesiastical. 

The Greeks improved on the knowledge of architecture which 
they acquired from the Assyrians and Egyptians. They divided 
it into three styles, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Doric is the old¬ 
est, Corinthian the most ornamental. 


SPARKS FkOM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 53 


Greek architecture was in perfection 650 to 300 b.c. Phidias, 
the designer of the Parthenon, at Athens, was the most noted of 
architects. 

The Arch is not found in any Grecian building, although em¬ 
ployed by the Egyptians and Assyrians. 

The Romans adopted the Greek models, with the Tuscan and 
Composite. Roman architecture flourished with great magnificence 
in the time of Augustus. They adopted the Arch and communi¬ 
cated it to Western Europe. 

The Basilica, first used for Roman courts of justice, markets, etc., 
were generally transformed into churches after the introduction 
of Christianity. 

The Byzantine. Saracenic, Gothic, and Renaissance styles 
of architecture followed the Greek and Roman. The church of 
St. Sophia, at Constantinople, and St. Mark’s at Venice, are con¬ 
sidered pure specimens of Byzantine architecture in the middle 
ages. 

The Saracenic Architecture is represented by the Alham¬ 
bra of the Moors in Granada, Spain. 

Gothic Architecture comprised various styles which pre¬ 
vailed in Western Europe during the middle ages, and in the 
Gothic was perfected the Cathedral in the shape of a cross. 

The Renaissance in architecture was a renewal down to the 
minutest details of the Roman, or Classical style. Palladio, 
1518, Italian; Inigo Jones, 1600, and Sir Christoper Wren, 
English, w T ere all celebrated architects. 

According to Ruskin, the French not only invented Gothic 
architecture, but carried it to a perfection that no other nation has 
approached since. 

SCULPTURE. 

In the highest sense sculpture is the counterpart of painting. 

The Egyptians are the first people who elevated sculpture 
almost to a pure art. 

The oldest statues in existence are now believed to be those of 
Sheik Ra-em-ke, of Sciiafiia, and of his wife or sister, discov¬ 
ered at Sakkarab, by Mariette Bey, who ascribes them to the third 
dynasty (b.c. 4449). They are more natural and expressive than 
later Egyptian sculptures. Two are of limestone, one is diorite, 
and the other cedarwood coated with flesh-tinted stucco. The 
eyeballs are pieces of opaque quartz, having bits of rock crystal 
to represent the pupils. 

The Assyrians failed in the treatment of the human figure, 
but surpassed in hunting scenes, etc. In Greece sculpture at¬ 
tained its utmost perfection, the Greeks excelling in this art all 
other nations, either ancient or modern. 

Phidias was employed by Pericles (440 b.c.) to embellish 


54 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Athens. His greatest works were the sculptures of the Parthe- 
non, the statue of Minerva, and the Olympian Jupiter at Elis. 

The Romans carried off most of the great Greek sculptures to 
Rome, and fond as they were of art, they produced no great 
artist. 

The four great Tuscan masters were Della Quercia, Brunel¬ 
leschi, Ghiberti and Donatello. 

Sculpture died out in Italy about the end of the Sixteenth Cen¬ 
tury, and the names of Bernini, Algardi and Canova mark the chief 
attempts at revival. Canova was the master of Thorwalsden. In 
France alone the Renaissance spirit survived, and the fame of the 
school has been maintained by Puget, Girardon, Houdon, etc. 

Strictly speaking sculpture had no existence in England till the 
appearance of Flaxman. 

America has been singularly prolific of gifted sculptors, among 
whom are Greenough, Hiram Powers, Crawford, Henry 
Brown Palmer, Thomas Ball and Quincy Ward. 

The Apollo Belvidere, a celebrated Greek statue of Apollo, 
lost for ages, was discovered in 1503 a.d. and placed in the 
Belvidere gallery of the Vatican, Rome. 

The statue of Venus de Medicis, by an unknown Greek 
sculptor, was found in the ruins of the Emperor Hadrian’s villa, 
transferred to the gardens of the Medici, and then (1695) to Flor¬ 
ence. 

The Elgin Marbles, now in the British Museum, are a collection 
of ancient sculptures from Athens. 

MUSIC. 

Music of one kind or another has existed from the earliest 
times. In Asiatic countries it has made scarcely any progress for 
centuries. The Hindus at an early date developed a mathemat¬ 
ical and scientific knowledge of acoustics. Among the ancient 
Egyptians certain families were set apart as musicians. The 
Hebrews had trumpets, shawms (a wind instrument resembling a 
modern clarionet), harps and cymbals. 

The early hymns of the Christian church, borrowed from He¬ 
brew and pagan sources, form the basis of our modern music. 

Pope Gregory gave music a vast impetus. The Gregorian 
chant consisted of certain choral melodies introduced toward the 
end of the Sixth Century. 

The Dies Irce (Days of Wrath) is a celebrated Latin hymn of 
mediaeval composition, and its author is unknown. 

In the Ninth Century harmonies were introduced, national melo¬ 
dies sprung up, and the era of minstrels began. 

Guido, a Benedictine monk, conceived (in 1022) the idea of rep¬ 
resenting notes on horizontal lines. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 55 


Italian opera seems to date from the production of Peri’s 
Eurydice at Florence in 1600, and is a musical drama. 

Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and Verdi, Italians , were at the 
head of Italian opera. 

Church music was perfected by Bach. The oratorio was almost 
created by Handel. 

Opera under Mozart and Gluck attained its highest develop¬ 
ment. Orchestral music became beautiful under Haydn, sub¬ 
lime under Beethoven; nor have the musical geniuses of our own 
day been few. The Nineteenth Century can claim Mendels¬ 
sohn, Weber, Meyerbeer, Auber, Schubert, Spohr, Schu¬ 
mann, Chopin, Bellini, Verdi, Wallace, Sterndale Ben¬ 
nett and Gounod, and the great Wagner, as its sons. 

Instrumental performances have been carried to a higher pitch 
than ever by Paganini, Tiialberg, Joachim and Von Bulow. 
The tide of progress of music has not yet receded, and a glorious 
future is promised. 

PAINTING. 

By painting we mean the art of representing scenes, objects, 
figures, and incidents, real or imaginary, by the use of colors, on flat 
or curved surfaces. 

Of the origin of the art it is in vain to speak, but it is probably 
as old as language itself. Pictures have been discovered on the 
walls of tombs and temples of Abousambul, which are consider¬ 
ably upwards of 3000 years old, and the colors of which retain 
their original freshness. 

The earliest painted portrait on record is that of Amasis, King 
of Egypt, which was presented to the Greeks of Cyrene 600 years 

B.C. 

The art of painting appears to have reached Greece through 
Egypt and Asia Minor. Its historic age commences after the de¬ 
feat of Xerxes. Few Greek paintings now remain. 

Before the Christian era, Rome was full of Greek painters, and 
the history of painting in Rome is divided into three periods. 
First, from the Roman conquest of Greece to the time of Augus¬ 
tus; the second reaches on to the latter part of the Third Century; 
and the third comprised the time when Rome was drained to 
decorate the churches and palaces of New Rome (Constanti¬ 
nople). 

The Byzantine artists of Constantinople preserved the art of 
painting during the middle ages. 

Cimabue (1270), and Giotti, his pupil (1300), were each celebra¬ 
ted early Italian painters. 

Oil painting is said to have been invented by Van Eyck (1410), 
but it is claimed that pictures had been done in oil over 500 years 
previous. 


56 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Schools of 'painting were styles of treating subjects adopted in 
different cities and countries, such as Roman, Florentine, Bo¬ 
lognese, Venetian, French, Spanish, Flemish, Dutch and English 
schools. 

The three greatest painters of the Italian school were Leonardo 
da Vinci, Michael Angelo, and Raphael, all of the Sixteenth 
Century. Angelo was a great sculptor and architect. 

Albert Durer was the father of the German school, and one 
of the greatest of artists. 

Nicholas Poussin and Charles le Brun were leaders of the 
French school. Rubens (1577) was at the head of the Flemish 
school. Rembrandt (1606) of the Dutch school. Velasquez (1599) 
and Murillo (1618) of the Spanish school. Sir Peter Lely (1617), 
Hogarth (1697), Reynolds (1723), were great English painters. 

“Pre-Raphaelite” pictures are noted for attention to minutiae. 

“Genre” are those pictures which tell a story. 

“ Gallery ” pictures are those of a large size. 

MISCELLANY. 

Paper is said to have been invented about the year 1000 of the 
Christian era; but the Chinese were acquainted with the art in 
very remote times. 

Printing was invented by John Guttenberg, at Mayence, in 
Germany, 1437 a.d. 

Wood Engraving began to be practiced in Germany and 
other countries about 1400. It was first used for stamping or 
printing playing cards and Scriptural subjects. 

. The First Bible ever printed, called the “ Bible for the poor,” 
was composed of pictures from wood engravings. 

Playing Cards of the present kind became known in Italy in 
1379. 

Covering Books in a superior manner was in use long before 
the art of printing was discovered. Beautiful and elaborate 
binding existed as early as the Eleventh Century. 

In the middle ages ordinary news was disseminated by 
wandering minstrels, pilgrims, traders and mendicants. Some¬ 
times years elapsed before the people of one country knew what 
had taken place in another country. 

Bills of Exchange were invented by the Jews in the Twelfth 
Century, and first employed in England in 1307. 

Books were originally written on finely prepared skins of 
parchment. 

The word Volume comes from the roll books (writings wound 
on a roll) of the Romans, which were called “ Volumina.” 

The word Stationer has its origin in the fact that when books 
multiplied by the invention of printing, they were sold by book- 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 57 


sellers wlio became known as Stationarii or Stationers, from hav¬ 
ing been stationed at the gates of Universities and other places. 

The Vedas are the most ancient and the most authoritative 
Hindu books on religious subjects; they are in Sanscrit. 

The Koran is the sacred book of the Mohammedans, com¬ 
posed in Arabic by Mohammed. 

The English language is composed of 42,000 words, 13,000 of 
which are Anglo-Saxon, 29,000 French and Latin. 

Bunyan and the authorized version of the Bible employ more 
Anglo-Saxon words than any other works. 

William Caxton introduced the art of printing in England 
about 1471. He printed the first book, which was called the 
“ Game of Chess.” 

The earliest English newspapers belonged to the reign of 
James I. They first appeared (1619) in the form of quarto pam¬ 
phlets. They did not embrace general intelligence until the reign 
of Charles I. 

Lithography, the art of printing from a design on stone, was 
invented by Aloys Senefelder, a Munich musician, toward the 
close of the last century. 

The magazines, monthly periodicals, of which the Gentleman's 
Magazine was the first, began in 1731. 

Encyclopedias in 1728, by Ephraim Chambers. 

Reviews began 1749. The Edinburgh Review, 1802. 

Talmud is the name given to the book which comprehends the 
Jewish law. 

The Old Testament was originally written in Hebrew and partly 
in Chaldee; the new Testament in Greek. 

The Septuagint was a Greek version of the original Hebrew Old 
Testament executed 280 years before Christ, said by Josephus to 
be the work of seventy-two translators. 

Vulgate signifies the translation of the Scriptures into Latin 380 
a.d. 

The first English version of the whole Bible was executed in 1553, 
by Myles Coverdale; the present version of the Bible was prepared 
between 1607-1610, at the request of James I. of England. 

Confucius was a Chinese sage and moralist, born about 550 b.c. 
He inculcated honesty, benevolence, and other virtues. 

The seven wise men of Greece were Periander, Pitacus, Thales , 
Solon, Bias, Chilon and Cleobulus. 

Christ was crucified at Jerusalem in the reign of Tiberius, 
33 A.D. 

The Temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon about the Tenth 
Century before Christ, was reconstructed by Esdras, in the time of 
~ rus, and destroyed by Titus, 70 a.d. It was situated on Mount 



oriah, and overlooked Jerusalem. 

The Mosque of Omar was built by command of Omar, a 


58 SPARKS PROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Mohammedan Calipli who conquered Palestine. It was erected on 
the site of Solomon’s Temple, 637 a.d. 

The Colosseum at Rome covered a space of 60,000 square feet and 
seated 87,000 spectators. 

The Great Wall op China, 1400 miles long and from 15 to 
30 feet high, was built about 200 years before Christ. 

The Great Canal op China is 700 miles long, and from the 
number of flood gates that regulate it, the bridges that span it, etc., 
constitute it one of the greatest national works in the world. 

The Seven Wonders of the world were the Pyramids of Egypt, 
the walls and hanging gardens of Babylon, the Pharos at Alexan¬ 
dria, Egypt: the Temple of Diana at Ephesus; the statue of 
Jupiter by Phidias, composed of ivory and gold; the sepulchre of 
Mausolus , 353 b.c., and the Colossus of Rhodes. 

The Pharos of Alexandria was a celebrated lighthouse on the 
Island of Pharos, near Alexandria, Egypt, erected 300 b.c. 

The six Great Powers of the world are Russia, Germany, Austria, 
France, Great Britain and the United States of America. 

In the open ocean the greatest height of the waves is attained 
between Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, where a severe 
gale produces billows whose crest is forty feet higher than the hol¬ 
low or trough, with a breadth of a quarter of a mile. In the open 
Atlantic twenty-five feet is the maximum height. 

It is rather remarkable that the greatest depression of the 
ocean-bed is pretty much the same as the greatest elevation of the 
earth. 

The light of the sun penetrates the waters of the clear seas 
some 200 yards. Objects have been seen by the naked eye at a 
depth of 150 feet. 

The five largest libraries of the world, in their order, are the 
National Library of France, at Paris, 2,000,000 volumes; the 
library of the British Museum, London, 1,150,000 volumes; the 
Imperial Library of Russia, at St. Petersburg, 1,100,000 volumes; 
the Royal Public Library at Dresden, 900,000, and the Royal 
Library at Berlin, 700,000 volumes. In America, the five 
largest are the Boston Public Library, (about) 555,000 volumes; 
Library of Congress, at Washington, 350,000 volumes; Yale Col¬ 
lege Library, 190,000; Astor Library, New York, 180,000; Mer¬ 
cantile Library, New York, 180,000. 

Artificial Sponge, made of cotton rendered absorbent and treated 
with antiseptics, has been invented in England. A piece the size 
of a walnut has absorbed water until it reaches the size of a cocoa- 
nut. It is so cheap that it need be used but once. 

In 1513 Balboa discovered the Pacific by crossing the isthmus, 
and in 1520 Magellan, a Portuguese, passed though Magellan 
Straits and crossed that ocean, circumnavigating the globe for 
the first time. 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 59 


A notable and late feat in navigation is the voyage of the Vega, 
a Swedish vessel, by the Northeast Passage round Northern Asia. 

The sea passage to India was discovered by Vasco da Gama in 
1497, altering the whole current of traffic between Europe and 
India. 

The Earthquake at Lisbon , Portugal , took place November 1st, 
1755, when in eight minutes over 50,000 inhabitants were swal¬ 
lowed up. 

The Sicilian vespers was the name given to the massacre of the 
French in Sicily. The massacre began in Palermo on Easter 
Monday, 1282, and 8,000 Frenchmen were slaughtered. 

The Circulation of the blood was established by William Har¬ 
vey in 1628. 

The Protective Power of Vaccination was discovered by 
Dr. .Tenner of England in 1792. 

Gunpowder is generally thought to have been invented by 
Roger Bacon, an English Monk, in 1270. It was first used by the 
English at the battle of Cressy in 1346. 

The Mariner’s Compass was invented or first made known in 
Europe in 1160 by Marco Polo, a Venetian. 

CnEAP Literature began in 1832. 

The Law of Copyright dates from the reign of Queen 
Anne. 

The First University was established at Paris about 1200 a.d. 

TnE Rosetta Stone found at Rosetta, Egypt, bore inscriptions 
in three varieties of character: ancient hieroglyphics, the popu¬ 
lar characters of the country, and the Greek. Champollion, an 
eminent French savant, discovered that the inscriptions were 
repetitions of each other, and his knowledge of the Greek afford¬ 
ed the interpretation. 

The Stone, Bronze , andiron Ages are said by archaeologists to be 
periods when weapons were made of stone, copper and iron. 

Masonic Guilds of the middle ages were fraternities of 
practical architects and masons, who reared great ecclesiastical 
structures; they moved from country to country, fostered by the 
Church. 

Patron Saints were: for England, St. George; Scotland, St. 
Andrew; Ireland, St. Patrick; Wales, St. David; France, St. 
Denis; Paris, St. Genevieve; Naples, St. Januarius; Edinburgh, 
St. Giles. 

Saints' Days were: St. George’s, 23d of April; Saint Andrew’s, 
30th of November; St. Patrick’s, 17th of March; St. David’s, 1st 
of March. 

The Order of the Garter, 1344, originated as follows: The Coun¬ 
tess of Salisbury, in dancing with Edward III., lost her garter. The 
king picked it up and tied iQaround his own leg, exclaiming. 


60 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


“ Honi soit qui maly pense.” This order of knighthood is the 
highest of the kind. 

Gypsies were thought to have come from Egypt, and thus in 
England were called Gypsies. They are now believed to have 
originated in India. 

Lloyds is an establishment in London where the insurance of 
vessels at sea is undertaken by capitalists called underwriters. It 
takes its name from one Lloyd who kept a coffee house in London 
in 1810. 

Pecuniary (the word) is from the Latin word pecunia, money. 
The root of the word was pecus, cattle, cattle having constituted 
the wealth of the early Romans. 

Money is from the temple of Juno Moneta, in which money 
was coined by the Romans. Mint has the same root. 

Sterling. The word sterling is a corruption of Easterlings, who 
were invited to come to England in the reign of Henry III. to re¬ 
fine silver. 

Cased is from the French word caisse, a chest or box where 
money was kept. 

Guinea took its name from the coast of Guinea in Africa, 
whence the gold for it was originally brought. 

Consols is a term applied to a particular kind of government 
stock in England, different borrowings of the government con¬ 
solidated. 

The Potato was introduced into Europe from Chili, in South 
America, about 1700. 

The first person that successfully propelled a vessel by a screw set 
at the stern was Col. John Stevens of Hoboken, N. J. 

The Telephone was invented by Prof. Gray, who filed a caveat 
in the Patent Office, Washington, D. C., March 14, 1876; also by 
Prof. Bell on the same day. 

The first insurance company set up in Great Britain was organ¬ 
ized in 1696, and now exists under the name of the Hand-in-Hand 
Insurance Company. 

The sablier (sand-glass) by some authorities is said to have been 
invented in France shortly before the accession of Charlemagne 
by the man who reinvented the blowing of glass after the secret 
had been lost for years. He was a monk of Chartres named Luit- 
prand, and the sand-glass he made was the exact prototype of all 
those that have been made since. It consisted of two pear-shaped 
receptacles joined by their slender ends. When the sand had all 
run from one to the other, the lower glass was turned uppermost 
and kept in that position till empty. Charlemagne caused a 
monstrous sablier to be made with the horal divisions marked on 
the outside by thin lines of red paint. This was the first hour¬ 
glass. It required to be turned over only once in twelve hours, 
and it kept time with as much precision as the best of lever 


SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 61 


clocks. Other authorities state that hour-glasses were invented 
at Alexandria about the middle of the Third Century. Many 
people still consider the glass the best timekeeper ever invented. 
Early in the Sixteenth Century they were introduced into churches 
to regulate the length of the sermons, very elaborate stands being 
sometimes erected for them. 

Buddha, a recluse of India, about 600 b.c., was the founder of a 
religion known as Buddhism. The religion is atheistic, and 
consists mainly of a system of morals, its aim being to reach 
such purity of life as to entitle its followers to utter annihilation. 
Until this is reached, they believe they pass at death into various 
individuals and animals in succession, called “ transmigration of 
souls.” 

The Religious Sects of the world are composed of about 1,251,000,- 
000 persons, of which number 500,000,GOO are Buddhists, 152,000,- 
000 Roman Catholics, 75,000,000 Greek Church, 100,000,000 other 
Christians (included among the latter are many who are called 
Christians because they live in Christianized countries), 160,000,- 
000 Hindus, 155,000,000 Mohammedans, 7,000,000 Jews, 1,200,000 
Sikhs, 150,000 Parsees, 100,000,000 all other religions. 

The First Church historian was Eusebius, 261-340 a.d., who 
wrote a history of the church “ from the very origin of the dis¬ 
pensation of our Lord ” to the accession of Constantine, 324 a.d. 
He himself seems to have relied upon something like inspira¬ 
tion, for he acknowledges that his materials were next to none. 
In the preface to his work he says: “ Looking up with prayer to 
God as our guide, we trust indeed that we shall have the power of 
Christ as our aid, though we are utterly unable to -find the bare 
vestiges of those who may have travelled the way before us.” From 
Eusebius and the writers that followed him to 594 a.d., the legion 
of later writers must all derive their materials. 

Easter Eggs, or Pasch eggs, are symbolical of creation, or the 
re creation, of spring. The practice of presenting eggs to our 
friends at Easter is Persian, and bears allusion to the mundane 
egg for which Ormuzd and Ahriman were to contend until the 
consummation of all things; it prevailed not only with the Per¬ 
sians, but also among the Jews, Egyptians and Hindus. Chris¬ 
tians adopted the custom to symbolize the resurrection, and they 
color the eggs red in allusion to the blood of their redemption. 
There was a tradition that the world was “hatched,” or created, 
at Eastertide. 

Pre-Adamite. —Peyreri maintained that only the Jews are 
descended from Adam, and that the Qentiles are descended from 
a race of men existing before Adam. As the book of Genesis is the 
history of the Jews only, it does not concern itself with the Gen¬ 
tile race. 

Publicans of the New Testament were the provincial under- 


62 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


lings of the Magister, or master collector, who resided at Rome. 
The taxes were farmed by a contractor called the Manceps. This 
Manceps divided his contract into different societies; each so¬ 
ciety had a Magister, under whom were a number of underlings 
called Publicaui, or servants of the State. 

Weather Cock. —By a Papal enactment made in the middle 
of the Ninth Century, the figure of a cock was set up on every 
church steeple as the emblem of St. Peter. 

Weeping Brides. —A notion prevailed in England that it 
augured ill for a matrimonial alliance if the bride did not weep 
profusely at the wedding. As no witch could shed more than 
three tears, and those from her left eye only, a copious flood of 
tears gave assurance to the husband that the lady had not 
“ plighted her troth” to Satan, and was no witch. 

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were four acres of gar¬ 
den raised on a base supported by pillars, and towering in terraces 
one above another 300 feet in height. At a distance they looked 
like a vast pyramid covered with trees. This mound was con¬ 
structed by Nebuchadnezzar to gratify his wife, Amytis, who felt 
weary of the flat plains of Babylon, and longed for something to 
remind her of her native Medean hills, 

The Seven Churches of Asia are: (1) Ephesos, founded by St. 
Paul, 57; in a ruinous state in the time of Justinian, 527. (2) 

Smyrna; still an important seaport; Polycarp was its first bishop; 
he died 175. (3) Pergamos, renowed for its library. (4) Thy - 

atira, now called Ak-hissar (the White Castle). (5) Sardis, now a 
small village called Sart. (6) Philadelphia, now called Allah Selir 
(city of God), a miserable town. (7) Laodicea, now a deserted 
place called Eske-liisson (the Old Castle). 

Shamrock is the symbol of Ireland, because it was selected by 
St. Patrick to prove to the Irish the doctrine of the Trinity. 
According to the elder Pliny, no serpent will touch this plant. 

Tableaux Vivants. —Representations of statuary groups by 
living persons were invented by Madame Genlis while she had 
charge of the children of the Due d’Orleans. 

Uncle. —Gone to my Uncle's. Uncle is a pun on the Latin 
word Uncus, a hook. Pawnbrokers employed a hook to lift arti¬ 
cles pawned before spouts were adopted. “ Gone to the Uncus” 
is exactly tantamount to the phrase “Up the Spout.” 

Liberty means balance of power (Latin; libra, a balance). 

GoTnic Architecture has nothing to do with the Goths, but 
is a term of contempt bestowed by the architects of the Renais¬ 
sance period on Mediajval architecture, which they termed Gothic, 
or clumsy; fit for barbarians. 

Knight means simply a boy or servant. Those who served the 
feudal kings bore arms, and persons admitted to this privilege 




SPARKS PROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 63 

were the king’s knights. As this distinction was limited to men 
of family, the word became a title of honor next to the nobility. 

Leaf.—B efore the invention of paper, one of the substances 
employed for writing was the leaves of certain plants; the reverse 
and obverse pages of a book are still called leaves; and the double 
page of a ledger is termed a “ folio,” from folium (a leaf). 

Lamps, with horn sides, are said to have been the invention of 
Alfred the Great. London streets were first lighted with oil- 
lamps in 1681, and with gas-lamps 1814. 

The Golden Palace of Nero consisted of three galleries on 
three rows of marble pillars, each row a mile in length. The roof 
and walls were gold (gilt), inlaid with mother of pearl. One of 
the banqueting rooms, made of glass, revolved with the sun and 
distilled perfume on the guests. 

Houris are the large, black-eyed damsels of Paradise, pos¬ 
sessed of perpetual youth and beauty, whose virginity is renewed 
at pleasure. Every believer will have seventy-two of these houris 
in Paradise, according to “ The Koran.” 

Isparetta. —Supreme god of the people of Malabar. She 
converted herself into an egg, from which was hatched heaven 
and earth, and all that they contain. She has three eyes and 
eight hands. 

Brother Jonathan. —In the revolutionary war Washington, 
being in great want of supplies for the army, and having un¬ 
bounded confidence in his friend Jonathan Trumbull, Governor 
of Connecticut, said we must consult Brother Jonathan. Brother 
Jonathan was consulted often by the liberator, and was accepted 
as the national name of the Americans as a people. 

Cattle were first carried to America by Columbus in his second 
voyage, 1493. Swine brought into the present territory of the 
United States by De Soto, 1538. First slave labor within the pres¬ 
ent territory of the United States at the founding of St. Augus¬ 
tine, 1565. Tobacco carried to England from America by Raleigh, 
1586. First cattle and swine brought to Massachusetts, 1624. 
Hops first introduced in the United State, 1628. First horses in 
Massachusetts, 1629-30. First apples picked in the United 
States in Boston, 1639. Sugar cane brought into Louisiana, 1751. 
First improved cattle brought into the United States, 1783. South 
Carolina and Philadelphia agricultural societies founded 1784. 
First cotton (eight bales) sent from the United States to England 
and seized by custom house on the ground that the United States 
must not produce so much, 1784. First recorded United States 
thresher-patent, 1791. Thence to 1810 were granted in the 
United States thirty patents for reapers; from 1810 to 1835, two 
hundred and forty more; and many since. Whitney’s cotton-gin 
invented 1793. 

First cast-iron plough-patent issued to Newbold of New Jersey, 


64 SPARKS FROM THE ANVIL OF KNOWLEDGE. 


1797. First agricultural exhibition in the United States at George¬ 
town, D. C., May 10, 1810. First useful mowing-machine (Man¬ 
ning’s) patented in the United States, 1831. First useful reaper- 
patents in the United States, Sclinebley’s and Hussey’s, both of 
Maryland, 1833. Guano began to come into use about 1840. Yale 
College Agricultural Department established 1852. World’s Fair, 
New York, promotes use of agricultural machinery, 1853. Great 
trial of threshing, reaping and mowing machines in France, the 
American machines gaining a complete victory. The United 
States Government Agricultural Department established by an 
act of Congress May 15, 1862. First great cotton fair held at 
Atlanta, Ga., 1881. 














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